Ekonomik eşitsizlik

Ekonomik eşitsizlik bir gruptaki bireylerin, bir popülasyonu oluşturan grupların ya da ülkelerin arasındaki ekonomik refah seviyesinde farklılıklar bulunması durumunu tanımlar. Ekonomik eşitsizlik ifadesi gelir eşitsizliği, servet eşitsizliği, ya da zenginlik boşluğu olarak da ifade edilebilir. Ekonomistler genellikle ekonomik eşitsizliğe üç kriteri ölçü alarak yaklaşır: servet, gelirve tüketim.[1] Ekonomik eşitsizlik sorunu eşitlik, eşitlik çıktısı, ve eşitlik fırsatı kavramları ile ilişkilidir.[2]

Dünya genelindeki gelir eşitliğindeki farklılıklardır, ölçüm aracı Gini katsayısıdır. "Gini katsayısı 0 ile 1 arasında olan bir değerdir. 0 mükemmel eşitliği ifade ederken (herkesin aynı gelire sahip olması durumu) 1 ise mükemmel eşitsizliği tanımlar (bir kişinin tüm gelire sahip olurken diğer hiçbir kimsenin gelir elde edememesi durumu)

Ekonomik eşitsizlik; toplumlar, tarihsel dönemler, ekonomik yapılar ve ekonomik sistemler arasında değişiklikler gösterir. Bu eşitsizlik, gelirin ya da servetin herhangi bir periyottaki yatay seyri ve gelir ya da servetin uzun süreler içerisindeki değişimi anlamını taşır.[3] Ekonomik eşitsizliği ölçmek için birçok sayısal endeks mevcut olup en yaygın olarak kullanılan ise Gini katsayısı'dır.

Bazı çalışmalar, ekonomik eşitsizliğin toplumsal bir sorun olduğunu ortaya koymuştur[4] Örneğin, Yüksek değerdeki eşitsizlik yıkıcı olabilir,[5][6] çünkü bu eşitsizlik uzun vadeli büyümeye engel olacaktır.[7][8][9] Yüksek değerdeki gelir eşitliği de aynı şekilde yıkıcıdır, çünkü verimliliği azaltır, risk alma ve servet edinme isteğini köreltir.[10][11][12][13]

Eşitsizliğin deneysel (amprik) ölçümü

Ekonomistler, ekonomik dağılımı ölçerken genellikle üç metriği dikkate alır: servet, gelir ve tüketim.[1] Profesyonel bir uzmanın öğrencilik döneminde düşük serveti ve düşük geliri olabilir, ve kariyer sürecinde düşük servet ve yüksek gelir, kariyer sonrasında ise yüksek servet ve düşük geliri olur. İnsanların tercihleri kazançlarını hemen tüketmeyi ya da tüketimi geleceğe saklama alternatifini belirler. Bu ayrım ekonomi seviyesinde ayrıca önemlidir:

Bazı ülkelerin yüksek derece gelir eşitsizliği ve buna kıyasla düşük derecede servet eşitsizliği vardır - örneğin; Japonya ve İtalya[1]
Bazı ülkelerin nispeten düşük derecede gelir eşitsizliği ancak buna kıyasla yüksek derecede servet eşitsizliği vardır - örneğin; İsveç ve Danimarka[1]

Ölçümler

Küresel servet dağılımı tahminleri

The following table displays the wealth patterns within countries. The table was created from information provided by the Credit Suisse, Research Institute's "Global Wealth Databook", published 2013.[14]

Country	Adults Thousands	Mean wealth per adult USD	Median wealth per adult USD	Distribution of adults (%) by wealth range (USD)					Gini %
Country	Adults Thousands	Mean wealth per adult USD	Median wealth per adult USD	under 10K	10K – 100K	100K – 1M	> 1M	Total	Gini %
Danimarka	4,190	255,066	57,675	39.5	17	37.8	5.7	100	107.7
Rusya Federasyonu	110,365	10,976	871	93.7	5.6	0.6	0.1	100	93.1
Ukrayna	35,912	3,413	419	97.4	2.3	0.2	0	100	90
Kazakistan	10,958	7,161	1,176	93.1	6.3	0.6	0.1	100	86.7
Lübnan	2,953	30,868	6,076	66.8	29.8	3.2	0.3	100	86.3
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri	239,279	301,140	44,911	30.7	33	30.7	5.5	100	85.1
Zimbabve	6,690	2,913	479	93.9	5.8	0.3	0	100	83.8
Türkiye	51,687	25,909	5,326	67	30.3	2.5	0.2	100	83.7
Güney Afrika	31,034	19,613	3,051	72.3	24.9	2.6	0.1	100	83.6
Hong-Kong, Çin	6,052	153,312	32,384	30.3	49.7	18.3	1.7	100	83.1
Filipinler	56,730	8,799	1,849	88.1	11.1	0.8	0.1	100	82.9
Endonezya	157,869	11,839	2,393	81.1	17.6	1.3	0.1	100	82.8
Tayland	49,642	7,772	1,855	90.5	8.8	0.6	0	100	82.6
Venezuela	18,991	6,900	1,505	90.9	8.5	0.6	0	100	82.5
Brezilya	135,385	23,278	5,117	66.6	30.5	2.7	0.2	100	82.1
Malezya	18,382	27,007	5,831	61.4	35.3	3.1	0.2	100	81.5
Şili	12,461	49,032	11,742	45	48	6.6	0.4	100	81.4
Hindistan	767,612	4,706	1,040	94.4	5.2	0.3	0	100	81.3
İsviçre	6,101	512,562	95,916	5.2	46	38.8	10	100	80.6
İsveç	7,299	299,441	52,677	15.6	48.3	29.2	6.9	100	80.3
Mısır	52,710	7,285	1,852	90.4	9	0.6	0	100	80.3
Nijerya	80,462	3,620	894	94.9	4.9	0.3	0	100	80
Kolombiya	30,464	26,222	6,228	60.2	35.8	3.9	0.2	100	79.7
Seychelles	54	60,003	14,617	40	50	9.2	0.8	100	79.6
Arjantin	28,265	15,638	4,032	72.1	26.1	1.7	0.1	100	79.6
Suudi Arabistan	16,694	37,346	9,772	53.3	41.1	5.3	0.3	100	79.3
Namibia	1,256	19,899	4,531	67.5	28.3	4.2	0.1	100	78.7
İsrail	4,947	137,351	38,164	30	44.8	23.7	1.5	100	78.7
Comoros	388	2,872	670	93.8	6.1	0.2	0	100	78.7
Kıbrıs	694	119,568	34,874	23.8	56.3	18.6	1.4	100	78.3
Meksika	73,380	35,872	9,718	53.5	40.6	5.7	0.3	100	78
Norveç	3,733	380,473	92,859	19.4	32.5	40.6	7.5	100	77.8
Avusturya	6,761	203,931	57,450	28.2	31.8	37	3	100	77.8
Libya	4,291	28,397	6,563	58.1	35.7	6	0.1	100	77.7
Botswana	1,181	10,348	2,649	81	17.6	1.4	0	100	77.2
Almanya	67,068	192,232	49,370	29	33.3	35.1	2.6	100	77.1
Haiti	5,813	3,532	960	92.3	7.5	0.2	0	100	76.1
Angola	9,273	14,708	3,934	69.1	28.8	2.1	0	100	75.6
Central African Republic	2,370	800	241	99.1	0.9	0	0	100	74.8
Bolivia	5,800	4,604	1,368	89.3	10.4	0.3	0	100	74.4
Zambia	6,151	1,817	548	96.8	3.2	0	0	100	74.1
Czech Republic	8,437	44,975	15,541	40	53.2	6.4	0.3	100	74
Singapore	3,955	281,764	90,466	20	34.2	41.4	4.4	100	73.9
Kuwait	2,291	119,101	42,897	21.8	55.5	21.5	1.2	100	73.8
Poland	30,255	26,056	9,109	55	41.5	3.3	0.1	100	73.7
Taiwan	18,359	151,752	53,336	22.5	45.1	30.8	1.7	100	73.6
Netherlands	12,914	185,588	83,631	23.3	30.9	43.6	2.2	100	73.2
Belize	188	9,998	3,130	76.3	22.6	1.1	0	100	73.1
Suriname	344	14,250	4,544	68.8	29.6	1.6	0	100	73
Nicaragua	3,424	3,432	1,147	92.5	7.3	0.1	0	100	73
Romania	16,692	14,044	5,137	69.3	29.2	1.4	0.1	100	73
Lesotho	1,079	3,457	1,105	92.4	7.5	0.1	0	100	72.9
Paraguay	3,910	10,934	3,726	73.2	25.6	1.3	0	100	72.8
Swaziland	628	4,360	1,393	90	9.8	0.2	0	100	72.7
Panama	2,322	22,292	7,509	57.3	38.5	4.2	0	100	72.7
Rwanda	5,306	723	245	99.3	0.7	0	0	100	72.7
Sao Tome and Principe	86	2,721	959	94.3	5.7	0.1	0	100	72.7
Canada	27,173	251,034	90,252	30	21.5	44.9	3.7	100	72.7
Korea	38,350	79,475	30,938	25.3	59.5	14.5	0.7	100	72.6
Papua New Guinea	3,752	8,470	2,821	81.1	18	0.8	0	100	72.4
Cape Verde	295	16,313	5,478	65	32.5	2.5	0	100	72.3
Antigua and Barbuda	63	19,011	6,281	58.8	38.3	3	0	100	72.2
Costa Rica	3,246	28,124	9,532	54.1	40.2	5.7	0.1	100	72.2
Dominica	50	24,086	8,349	55	40.3	4.7	0.1	100	72
St. Kitts and Nevis	34	23,613	8,185	56.3	39.1	4.6	0.1	100	71.9
St. Vincent and the Grenadines	71	10,196	3,492	73.8	25.1	1.1	0	100	71.9
Grenada	67	14,473	5,017	67.5	30.7	1.7	0	100	71.9
New Zealand	3,234	182,548	76,607	25.6	34.1	38.1	2.3	100	71.8
Ecuador	8,723	12,350	4,403	69.8	28.8	1.4	0	100	71.4
El Salvador	3,738	12,039	4,483	70	28.7	1.3	0	100	71
Ireland	3,488	183,804	75,573	20.9	36.5	40.4	2.2	100	70.9
Kenya	20,757	2,843	1,049	94.2	5.7	0.1	0	100	70.9
Oman	1,872	48,415	18,152	40	47.8	12	0.2	100	70.8
Peru	18,865	18,227	6,705	58.5	38.9	2.6	0	100	70.8
Gambia	908	864	324	99.2	0.8	0	0	100	70.8
Congo-Brazzaville	2,024	3,892	1,420	91.2	8.6	0.1	0	100	70.8
United Arab Emirates	3,777	126,791	51,882	20	50.6	28.2	1.3	100	70.5
Qatar	1,278	153,294	58,237	25	38.3	35	1.7	100	70.5
Portugal	8,614	89,074	38,846	25.8	54.8	18.7	0.8	100	70.1
Mozambique	11,441	811	313	99.3	0.7	0	0	100	70
Jamaica	1,719	11,401	4,393	70	28.8	1.2	0	100	69.9
Uruguay	2,400	47,002	17,998	39.6	48.3	11.9	0.2	100	69.8
Uganda	15,107	750	294	99.4	0.6	0	0	100	69.6
DR Congo	31,854	321	124	99.9	0.1	0	0	100	69.6
China	998,254	22,230	8,023	58.4	39.1	2.4	0.1	100	69.5
Madagascar	10,359	448	177	99.8	0.2	0	0	100	69.4
Guyana	474	3,801	1,506	91.6	8.3	0.1	0	100	69.2
Fiji	523	6,473	2,630	85	14.6	0.4	0	100	69
France	48,124	295,933	141,850	21.7	22.9	50.8	4.6	100	69
Barbados	200	22,289	8,108	55	41.5	3.5	0	100	69
Eritrea	2,781	2,125	875	96.3	3.7	0	0	100	68.9
Macedonia	1,561	11,543	4,743	69.3	29.6	1.1	0	100	68.8
Sierra Leone	2,897	681	273	99.6	0.4	0	0	100	68.8
Ghana	13,501	1,811	743	97.7	2.3	0	0	100	68.6
St. Lucia	119	13,087	5,296	66.3	32.5	1.2	0	100	68.5
Tunisia	7,452	21,084	8,823	55	41.5	3.5	0	100	68.2
Gabon	869	21,860	9,240	55	41.3	3.7	0	100	68.2
Solomon Islands	298	9,868	4,261	73.8	25.3	1	0	100	68.1
Morocco	21,355	11,398	4,750	70	28.9	1.1	0	100	68.1
Côte d'Ivoire	11,501	2,640	1,104	95	4.9	0.1	0	100	68.1
Sri Lanka	14,326	5,033	2,101	87.9	11.9	0.2	0	100	68
Turkmenistan	3,352	36,570	15,305	40	52.1	7.8	0.1	100	68
Georgia	3,172	21,640	9,178	54.7	41.8	3.5	0	100	68
Togo	3,693	2,450	1,049	95.6	4.3	0	0	100	67.9
United Kingdom	48,220	243,570	111,524	18	28.8	50	3.2	100	67.7
Mauritania	1,832	1,967	865	97	3	0	0	100	67.7
Burkina Faso	7,721	1,273	543	98.7	1.3	0	0	100	67.7
Djibouti	508	3,465	1,488	92.8	7.2	0.1	0	100	67.5
Chad	5,485	1,131	483	99	1	0	0	100	67.5
Trinidad and Tobago	987	15,088	6,459	60	38.5	1.5	0	100	67.4
Malawi	7,417	207	89	100	0	0	0	100	67.3
Guinea	5,301	882	380	99.4	0.6	0	0	100	67.3
Iceland	253	211,592	104,733	20	30	47.3	2.7	100	67.3
Tonga	54	15,905	7,217	58.8	39.8	1.5	0	100	67.2
Senegal	6,423	2,597	1,125	95.3	4.7	0	0	100	67.2
Cameroon	10,459	2,603	1,115	95.2	4.8	0	0	100	67.2
Vanuatu	138	6,068	2,753	85	14.7	0.3	0	100	67.1
Benin	4,733	3,187	1,398	93.6	6.3	0.1	0	100	67.1
Samoa	92	34,537	15,132	40	53	6.9	0.1	100	67
Cambodia	9,151	2,644	1,155	95	4.9	0	0	100	67
Yemen	12,192	4,951	2,193	88.3	11.6	0.2	0	100	66.8
Iran	53,270	8,727	3,846	75	24.4	0.6	0	100	66.8
Liberia	2,118	2,173	987	96.5	3.5	0	0	100	66.7
Tanzania	22,038	951	423	99.3	0.7	0	0	100	66.6
Laos	3,618	5,393	2,411	86.7	13.1	0.2	0	100	66.5
Lithuania	2,537	23,411	10,635	47.5	48.5	3.9	0	100	66.5
Myanmar	34,180	2,214	941	97	3	0	0	100	66.4
Finland	4,195	171,821	95,095	29	22.3	47.2	1.6	100	66.4
Maldives	210	5,556	2,480	85	14.8	0.2	0	100	66.3
Bahamas	242	41,106	17,842	35	55.9	9	0.1	100	66.2
Spain	37,206	123,997	63,306	17.4	52.4	29	1.1	100	66.1
Mongolia	1,855	14,214	6,433	61.1	37.6	1.3	0	100	66.1
Syrian Arab Republic	13,352	7,073	3,198	82.7	16.9	0.4	0	100	66
Latvia	1,787	24,285	11,338	45	50.9	4	0	100	66
Greece	9,105	102,971	53,937	20.4	53.7	25.1	0.8	100	65.9
Jordan	3,858	14,364	6,589	60.3	38.3	1.4	0	100	65.9
Kyrgyz Republic	3,568	5,385	2,432	85.9	13.9	0.2	0	100	65.9
Viet Nam	61,765	4,857	2,215	87.8	12	0.2	0	100	65.8
West Bank and Gaza	1,739	8,979	4,200	73.1	26.3	0.6	0	100	65.8
Equatorial Guinea	365	19,525	9,130	55	42.6	2.4	0	100	65.8
Bosnia and Herzegovina	2,985	11,173	5,139	68.2	30.9	0.9	0	100	65.8
Luxembourg	390	315,240	182,768	15	22.5	57	5.5	100	65.7
Estonia	1,055	33,701	15,724	40	53.3	6.6	0.1	100	65.7
Guinea-Bissau	836	424	199	99.9	0.1	0	0	100	65.7
Albania	2,237	9,450	4,451	72.7	26.6	0.7	0	100	65.6
Niger	7,014	937	434	99.3	0.7	0	0	100	65.5
Algeria	23,982	10,100	4,673	70	29.2	0.7	0	100	65.5
Sudan	23,811	1,291	595	98.9	1.1	0	0	100	65.4
Burundi	4,729	293	137	99.9	0.1	0	0	100	65.2
Azerbaijan	6,276	16,344	7,721	57.1	41.4	1.5	0	100	65.1
Croatia	3,498	26,551	12,639	41.2	54.1	4.7	0	100	65.1
Italy	49,117	241,383	138,653	20	20.5	56.5	3	100	65
Mali	6,464	955	455	99.4	0.6	0	0	100	64.7
Moldova	2,692	3,854	1,874	91.8	8.1	0.1	0	100	64.7
Nepal	17,273	1,998	951	97.7	2.3	0	0	100	64.7
Bangladesh	104,135	1,894	908	97.9	2.1	0	0	100	64.6
Mauritius	935	37,308	19,247	40	52.5	7.4	0.1	100	64.5
Hungary	7,915	28,379	14,068	40	55	4.9	0	100	64
Armenia	2,263	5,613	2,793	85.5	14.3	0.2	0	100	63.9
Tajikistan	4,022	3,168	1,581	94.3	5.7	0.1	0	100	63.8
Pakistan	106,365	4,248	2,106	90.8	9	0.1	0	100	63.8
Ethiopia	42,750	411	207	99.9	0.1	0	0	100	63.6
Australia	16,617	402,578	219,505	6.9	23.7	62.6	6.8	100	63.6
Japan	104,315	216,694	110,294	9.2	37.7	50.6	2.5	100	63.5
Montenegro	467	21,340	10,929	45	52.6	2.4	0	100	63.4
Belgium	8,387	255,573	148,141	17.4	22.1	57.3	3.2	100	62.6
Serbia	7,527	15,175	7,978	56.8	42	1.3	0	100	62.5
Bulgaria	5,991	16,818	8,825	55.2	43.4	1.4	0	100	62.5
Belarus	7,543	2,407	1,271	96.8	3.1	0	0	100	62.2
Malta	330	71,448	42,898	18.8	65	15.9	0.3	100	59.5
Bahrain	571	44,822	26,675	28.7	60	11.2	0	100	58.5
Brunei Darussalam	286	51,373	31,527	26.2	58.7	15	0	100	58.5
Slovenia	1,655	64,067	44,932	19.4	60.6	19.9	0.1	100	53.5
Slovakia	4,303	27,224	20,740	19.8	77.8	2.4	0	100	44.7

Nedenler

Toplum içindeki ekonomik eşitsizlik için pek çok neden vardır. Son dönemlerdeki gelir eşitsizliğindeki artışın - OECD ülkeleri için -temel nedeni maaş ve ücretlerdeki eşitsizliktir.[15]

Ekonomik kalkınma

Kuznet eğrisi

Finansal endüstri

Jamie Galbraith geniş finans sektörüne sahip ülkelerde ekonomik eşitsizliğin daha yüksek olduğunu ve finans sektörü hacmi ile eşitsizlik arasındaki bağlantının tesadüf olmadığını savunur.[16][17]

Etkiler

Rio de Janeiro'daki bu binalardaki farklılık ekonomik eşitsizliğin göstergesidir.

Ekonomik büyüme

Berg and Ostry of the International Monetary Fund found that of the factors affecting the duration of growth spells (not the rate of growth) in developed and developing countries, income equality is more beneficial than trade openness, sound political institutions, or foreign investment.[18][19]

Bakış açıları

Kaynakça

"A three-headed hydra". The Economist. 16 Temmuz 2014. 13 Kasım 2015 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 4 Haziran 2016.
Fletcher, Michael A. (10 Mart 2013). "Research ties economic inequality to gap in life expectancy". Washington Post. Erişim tarihi: 23 Mart 2013.
Wojciech Kopczuk, Emmanuel Saez, and Jae Song find that "most of the increase in the variance of ... annual earnings is due to increases in the variance of ... permanent earnings with modest increases in the variance of transitory ... earnings."
Wilkinson, Richard; Pickett, Kate (2009). The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better. Allen Lane. s. 352. ISBN 978-1-84614-039-6.
Easterly, W (2007). "Inequality does cause underdevelopment: Insights from a new instrument" (PDF). Journal of Development Economics. 84 (2). ss. 755-76. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.11.002.
Castells-Quintana, David; Royuela, Vicente (2012). "Unemployment and long-run economic growth: The role of income inequality and urbanisation" (PDF). Investigaciones Regionales. 12 (24). ss. 153-73. 11 Nisan 2019 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 17 Ekim 2013.
Stiglitz, J (2009). "The global crisis, social protection and jobs" (PDF). International Labour Review. Cilt 148. ss. 1-2. doi:10.1111/j.1564-913x.2009.00046.x.
Temple, J (1999). "The New Growth Evidence" (PDF). Journal of Economic Literature. 37 (1). ss. 112-56. doi:10.1257/jel.37.1.112. 18 Ekim 2015 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 4 Haziran 2016.
Clarke, G (1995). "More evidence on income distribution and growth" (PDF). Journal of Development Economics. Cilt 47. ss. 403-27. doi:10.1016/0304-3878(94)00069-o.
Freeman, Richard B. (1 Nisan 2012). "Optimal inequality for economic growth, stability, and shared prosperity: the economics behind the Wall Street Occupiers Protest?". Insights. Cilt 11. ss. 5-11. Erişim tarihi: 30 Ocak 2016.
Friedman, Mark (1 Mart 2008). "Living Wage and Optimal Inequality in a Sarkarian Framework" (PDF). Review of Social Economy. 66 (1). Taylor & Francis. ss. 93-111. doi:10.1080/00346760701668479. Erişim tarihi: 30 Ocak 2016.
Edsall, Thomas B. (4 Mart 2014). "Just Right Inequality". The New York Times. Erişim tarihi: 31 Ocak 2016.
Becker, Gary S.; Murphy, Kevin M. (Mayıs 2007). "The Upside of Income Inequality". The America. 1 Ekim 2014 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 8 Ocak 2014.
19 Ekim 2017 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi. Credit Suisse, Research Institute – Global Wealth Databook 2013
Gurría, Angel (5 Aralık 2011).
James K. Galbraith, Inequality and Instability: A Study of the World Economy Just before the Great Crisis (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).
Stiglitz, Joseph E. (June 4, 2012).
Berg, Andrew G.; Ostry, Jonathan D. (2011). "Equality and Efficiency". Finance and Development. 48 (3). International Monetary Fund. 3 Temmuz 2012 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 13 Temmuz 2014.
Andrew Berg and Jonathan Ostry. (2011) "Inequality and Unsustainable Growth: Two Sides of the Same Coin" 21 Mayıs 2019 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi. IMF Staff Discussion Note No. SDN/11/08 (International Monetary Fund)

Daha fazla kaynak

Kitaplar

Atkinson, Anthony B.; Bourguignon, François (2000). Handbook of income distribution. Amsterdam New York: Elvesier. ISBN 9780444816313.Handbook of income distribution. Amsterdam New York: Elvesier. ISBN 9780444816313.
Atkinson, Anthony B. (2015). Inequality: What Can Be Done? Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674504763
Barro, Robert J.; Sala-i-Martin, Xavier (2003) [1995]. Economic growth (2nd bas.). Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262025539.Economic growth (2nd ed.). Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262025539.
Deneulin, Séverine; Shahani, Lila (2009). An introduction to the human development and capability approach freedom and agency. Sterling, Virginia Ottawa, Ontario: Earthscan International Development Research Centre. ISBN 9781844078066.An introduction to the human development and capability approach freedom and agency. Sterling, Virginia Ottawa, Ontario: Earthscan International Development Research Centre. ISBN 9781844078066.
Giddens, Anthony; Diamond, Patrick (2005). The new egalitarianism. Cambridge, UK Malden, Massachusetts: Polity. ISBN 9780745634319.The new egalitarianism. Cambridge, UK Malden, Massachusetts: Polity. ISBN 9780745634319.
Gilens, Martin (2012). Affluence and influence: Economic inequality and political power in America. Princeton, New Jersey New York: Princeton University Press Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN 9780691162423.Affluence and influence: Economic inequality and political power in America. Princeton, New Jersey New York: Princeton University Press Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN 9780691162423.
Lambert, Peter J. (2001). The distribution and redistribution of income (3rd bas.). Manchester New York New York: Manchester University Press Palgrave. ISBN 9780719057328.The distribution and redistribution of income (3rd ed.). Manchester New York New York: Manchester University Press Palgrave. ISBN 9780719057328.
Lynn, Richard; Vanhanen, Tatu (2002). IQ and the wealth of nations. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 9780275975104.IQ and the wealth of nations. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 9780275975104.
Merino, Noël, (Ed.) (2016). Income inequality. Opposing Viewpoints Series. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Greenhaven Press. ISBN 9780737775259.Income inequality. Opposing Viewpoints Series. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Greenhaven Press. ISBN 9780737775259.
Page, Benjamin I.; Jacobs, Lawrence R. (2009). Class war?: What Americans really think about economic inequality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226644554.Class war?: What Americans really think about economic inequality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226644554.
Salverda, Wiemer; Nolan, Brian; Smeeding, Timothy M. (2009). The Oxford handbook of economic inequality. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199231379.The Oxford handbook of economic inequality. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199231379.
Schmidtz, David (2006). The elements of justice. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521539364.The elements of justice. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521539364.
Sen, Amartya (1999). Development as Freedom. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198297581.Development as Freedom. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198297581.
Sen, Amartya; Foster, James E. (1997). On economic inequality. Radcliffe Lectures. Oxford New York: Clarendon Press Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198281931.On economic inequality. Radcliffe Lectures. Oxford New York: Clarendon Press Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198281931.
von Braun, Joachim; Diaz-Bonilla, Eugenio (2008). Globalization of food, and agriculture, and the poor. New Delhi Washington D.C: Oxford University Press International Food Policy Research Institute. ISBN 9780195695281.Globalization of food, and agriculture, and the poor. New Delhi Washington D.C: Oxford University Press International Food Policy Research Institute. ISBN 9780195695281.
von Mises, Ludwig (1998). "Chapter 35: The welfare principle versus the market principle". von Mises, Ludwig (Ed.). Human action: a treatise on economics. Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig Von Mises Institute. ss. 819-50."Chapter 35: The welfare principle versus the market principle". In von Mises, Ludwig. Human action: a treatise on economics. Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig Von Mises Institute. pp. 819–50. ISBN 9780945466246
Wilkinson, Richard G. (2005). The impact of inequality: how to make sick societies healthier. Londra: Routledge. ISBN 9780415372695.The impact of inequality: how to make sick societies healthier. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415372695.
Wilkinson, Richard G.; Pickett, Kate (2009). The spirit level: why more equal societies almost always do better. Londra: Allen Lane. ISBN 9781846140396.The spirit level: why more equal societies almost always do better. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 9781846140396.

Makaleler

Alesina, Alberto; Di Tella, Rafael; MacCulloch, Robert (Ağustos 2004). "Inequality and Happiness: Are Americans and Europeans Different?". Journal of Public Economics. 88 (9–10). Elsevier. ss. 2009-42. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2003.07.006."Inequality and Happiness: Are Americans and Europeans Different?". Journal of Public Economics (Elsevier) 88 (9–10): 2009–42. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2003.07.006.
Andersen, Robert; Fetner, Tina (Ekim 2008). "Economic inequality and intolerance: Attitudes toward homosexuality in 35 democracies". American Journal of Political Science. 52 (4). Midwest Political Science Association. ss. 942-58. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2008.00352.x. JSTOR 25193859."Economic inequality and intolerance: Attitudes toward homosexuality in 35 democracies". American Journal of Political Science (Midwest Political Science Association) 52 (4): 942–58. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2008.00352.x. JSTOR 25193859.
Barro, Robert J. (Mayıs 1991). "Economic growth in a cross section of countries". Quarterly Journal of Economics. 106 (2). Oxford Journals. ss. 407-43. doi:10.2307/2937943."Economic growth in a cross section of countries". Quarterly Journal of Economics (Oxford Journals) 106 (2): 407–43. doi:10.2307/2937943.
Barro, Robert J. (Mart 2000). "Inequality and growth in a panel of countries". Journal of Economic Growth. 5 (1). Springer. ss. 5-32. doi:10.1023/A:1009850119329."Inequality and growth in a panel of countries". Journal of Economic Growth (Springer) 5 (1): 5–32. doi:10.1023/A:1009850119329.
Fukuda-Parr, Sakiko (2003). "The human development paradigm: Operationalizing Sen's ideas on capabilities". Feminist Economics. 9 (2-3). Taylor and Francis. ss. 301-17. doi:10.1080/1354570022000077980."The human development paradigm: Operationalizing Sen's ideas on capabilities". Feminist Economics (Taylor and Francis) 9 (2-3): 301–17. doi:10.1080/1354570022000077980.
Galor, Oded; Zeira, Joseph (Ocak 1993). "Income distribution and macroeconomics". Review of Economic Studies. 60 (1). Oxford Journals. ss. 35-52. doi:10.2307/2297811. JSTOR 2297811."Income distribution and macroeconomics". Review of Economic Studies (Oxford Journals) 60 (1): 35–52. doi:10.2307/2297811. JSTOR 2297811.
Kaldor, Nicholas (1955). "Alternative theories of distribution". Review of Economic Studies. 23 (2). Oxford Journals. ss. 83-100. doi:10.2307/2296292. JSTOR 2296292."Alternative theories of distribution". Review of Economic Studies (Oxford Journals) 23 (2): 83–100. doi:10.2307/2296292. JSTOR 2296292.
Kenworthy, Lane (Kasım–Aralık 2010). "Rising inequality, public policy, and America's poor". Challenge. 53 (6). Taylor and Francis. ss. 93-109. doi:10.2753/0577-5132530606. JSTOR 27896630."Rising inequality, public policy, and America's poor". Challenge (Taylor and Francis) 53 (6): 93–109. doi:10.2753/0577-5132530606. JSTOR 27896630. Pdf.
Lagerlöf, Nils-Petter (Ağustos 2005). "Sex, equality, and growth". Canadian Journal of Economics. 38 (3). Wiley. ss. 807-31. doi:10.1111/j.0008-4085.2005.00303.x."Sex, equality, and growth". Canadian Journal of Economics (Wiley) 38 (3): 807–31. doi:10.1111/j.0008-4085.2005.00303.x. Similar paper from August 2002: Sex, equality, and growth (in that order)
Maavak, Mathew (Aralık 2012). "Class warfare, anarchy and the future society". Journal of Futures Studies. 17 (2). Tamkang University Press. ss. 15-36."Class warfare, anarchy and the future society". Journal of Futures Studies (Tamkang University Press) 17 (2): 15–36. Pdf.
García-Peñalosa, Cecilia; Turnovsky, Stephen J. (Mart 2007). "Growth, income inequality, and fiscal policy: What are the relevant trade-offs?". Journal of Money, Credit and Banking. 39 (2-3). Wiley. ss. 369-94. doi:10.1111/j.0022-2879.2007.00029.x."Growth, income inequality, and fiscal policy: What are the relevant trade-offs?". Journal of Money, Credit and Banking (Wiley) 39 (2-3): 369–94. doi:10.1111/j.0022-2879.2007.00029.x. Pdf.
Pigou, Arthur C. (1932) [1920], "Part I, Chapter VIII: Economic welfare and changes in the distribution of the national dividend (section I.VIII.3)", Pigou, Arthur C. (Ed.), The economics of welfare (4th bas.), Londra: Macmillan and Co., OCLC 302702.), London: Macmillan and Co., OCLC 302702.
Sala-i-Martin, Xavier (Mayıs 2006). "The world distribution of income: Falling poverty and ... convergence, period". Quarterly Journal of Economics. 121 (2). Oxford Journals. ss. 351-97. doi:10.1162/qjec.2006.121.2.351. JSTOR 25098796."The world distribution of income: Falling poverty and ... convergence, period". Quarterly Journal of Economics (Oxford Journals) 121 (2): 351–97. doi:10.1162/qjec.2006.121.2.351. JSTOR 25098796.
Seguino, Stephanie (1 Temmuz 2000). "Gender inequality and economic growth: A cross-country analysis". World Development. 28 (7). ScienceDirect. ss. 1211-30. doi:10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00018-8."Gender inequality and economic growth: A cross-country analysis". World Development (ScienceDirect) 28 (7): 1211–30. doi:10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00018-8.
Smeeding, Timothy M.; Thompson, Jeffrey P. (2011), "Recent trends in income inequality", Immervoll, Herwig; Peichl, Andreas; Tatsiramos, Konstantinos (Edl.), Who loses in the downturn? Economic crisis, employment and income distribution, Research in Labor Economics, Volume 32, Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ss. 1-50, ISBN 9780857247490.Economic crisis, employment and income distribution, Research in Labor Economics, Volume 32, Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 1–50, ISBN 9780857247490. Pdf.

Also available as Smeeding, Timothy M.; Thompson, Jeffrey P. (2011). "Recent trends in income inequality (book chapter)". Research in Labor Economics (book series). Cilt 32. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. ss. 1-50. doi:10.1108/S0147-9121(2011)0000032004."Recent trends in income inequality (book chapter)". Research in Labor Economics (book series) (Emerald Group Publishing Limited) 32: 1–50. doi:10.1108/S0147-9121(2011)0000032004.

Solow, Robert M. (Şubat 1956). "A contribution to the theory of economic growth". Quarterly Journal of Economics. 70 (1). Oxford Journals. ss. 65-94. doi:10.2307/1884513. JSTOR 1884513."A contribution to the theory of economic growth". Quarterly Journal of Economics (Oxford Journals) 70 (1): 65–94. doi:10.2307/1884513. JSTOR 1884513. Pdf.
Svizzero, Serge; Tisdell, Clem (2003). "Income inequality between skilled individuals". International Journal of Social Economics. 30 (11). Emerald. ss. 1118-30. doi:10.1108/03068290310497486."Income inequality between skilled individuals". International Journal of Social Economics (Emerald) 30 (11): 1118–30. doi:10.1108/03068290310497486.

Çalışmalar

Burkhauser, R. V.; Feng, S.; Jenkins, S. P. (2009). "Using the P90/P10 index to measure US inequality trends with Current Population Survey data: A view from inside the Census Bureau vaults". Review of Income and Wealth. 55 (1). ss. 166-85. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00305.x."Using the P90/P10 index to measure US inequality trends with Current Population Survey data: A view from inside the Census Bureau vaults". Review of Income and Wealth 55 (1): 166–85. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00305.x.
Dollar, David; Gatti, Roberta (Mayıs 1999). Gender inequality, income, and growth: Are good times good for women? (pdf). Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network. Washington DC: The World Bank. OCLC 43703722.Gender inequality, income, and growth: Are good times good for women? (pdf). Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network. Washington DC: The World Bank. OCLC 43703722. Policy research report on gender and development working paper series, no. 1.
Ravallion, Martin (2005). World Bank, 5 May, Policy Research Working Paper no. WPS 3579, A poverty-inequality trade-off?
Sawhill, Isabel. "Do We Face a Permanently Divided Society?" The Economics of Inequality, Poverty, and Discrimination in the 21st Century Ed. Robert S. Rycroft. The University of Mary Washington, 2012.
Smeeding, Timothy and Thompson, Jeffrey. "Inequality in the Great Recession – The Case of the United States". FRDB International Income Inequality Project (July 2011). Working paper.
Uslaner, Eric.; Mitchell, Brown. (2002). "Inequality, Trust, and Civic Engagement" (PDF). 1 Haziran 2013 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 4 Haziran 2016."Inequality, Trust, and Civic Engagement" 27 Eylül 2006 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi. (PDF).
Voitchovsky, Sarah. "The effects of inequality on growth: perspectives from the theoretical literature." Working paper.

Dış bağlantılar

Media related to Economic inequality at Wikimedia Commons
Levy, Frank (2008). "Distribution of Income". David R. Henderson (ed.) (Ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd bas.). Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658. OCLC 237794267."Distribution of Income". In David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658. OCLC 237794267.
A portal dedicated to the topic of economic inequality 4 Şubat 2012 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi.
Small Inequality Measures Calculus (and On-Line Calculator)
The UC Atlas of Global Inequality explores some aspects of inequality using online, downloadable maps and graphics.
Population Health Forum website – group seeking to improve health by addressing inequality.
Russell Sage Foundation. "Social Inequality". Working Papers. 29 Mayıs 2006 tarihinde kaynağından (Web page) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 2 Mart 2006.. Working Papers. Archived from (Web page) on May 29, 2006. Retrieved March 2, 2006.
Leigh, A.; Jencks, C. (2005). "Inequality and Health: Long-Run Evidence from a Panel of Countries" (PDF). Erişim tarihi: 30 Kasım 2005."Inequality and Health: Long-Run Evidence from a Panel of Countries" (PDF). Retrieved November 30, 2005.
Clarkwest, A; Jencks, C. (2003). "Inequality and Mortality in Rich Countries: Who Owns the Null Hypothesis?" (PDF). 28 Mayıs 2006 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 30 Kasım 2005. (PDF). Archived from (PDF) on May 28, 2006. Retrieved November 30, 2005.
The Inequality Predicament United Nations Report on the World Social Situation 2005
Two Americas: One Rich, One Poor? 13 Haziran 2007 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi. Understanding Income Inequality in the United States 13 Haziran 2007 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi.
Has U.S. Income Inequality Really Increased? 15 Şubat 2011 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi. Accessed 2007-06-11.
Measuring Trends in Leisure: The Allocation of Time Over Five Decades studies the trade-offs between earning income and enjoying leisure
Data from the Inequality Survey
Decreasing Inequality Under Latin America's "Social Democratic" and "Populist" Governments: Is the Difference Real? from the Center for Economic and Policy Research
Wealth and Poverty: Center for Global Studies at the University of Illinois
Thomas Piketty's presentation Inequality & Capitalism in the Long-Run based on Capital in the Twenty-First Century
"Wealth Gap" – A Guide 29 Eylül 2018 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi. (AP News – January 2014).
Economic and Social Inequality in Asia and Pacific: 12 Things to Know Asian Development Bank
As inequality soars, the nervous super rich are already planning their escapes. The Guardian. 23 January 2015.
Asia’s Wealth Inequality Problem. The Diplomat. October 23, 2015.

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

[hydra-1] "A three-headed hydra". The Economist. 16 Temmuz 2014. 13 Kasım 2015 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 4 Haziran 2016.

[WaPoLifespan-2] Fletcher, Michael A. (10 Mart 2013). "Research ties economic inequality to gap in life expectancy". Washington Post. Erişim tarihi: 23 Mart 2013.

[3] Wojciech Kopczuk, Emmanuel Saez, and Jae Song find that "most of the increase in the variance of ... annual earnings is due to increases in the variance of ... permanent earnings with modest increases in the variance of transitory ... earnings."

[Spirit_Level-4] Wilkinson, Richard; Pickett, Kate (2009). The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better. Allen Lane. s. 352. ISBN 978-1-84614-039-6.

[biu.ac.il-5] Easterly, W (2007). "Inequality does cause underdevelopment: Insights from a new instrument" (PDF). Journal of Development Economics. 84 (2). ss. 755-76. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.11.002.

[Castells-Quintana-6] Castells-Quintana, David; Royuela, Vicente (2012). "Unemployment and long-run economic growth: The role of income inequality and urbanisation" (PDF). Investigaciones Regionales. 12 (24). ss. 153-73. 11 Nisan 2019 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 17 Ekim 2013.

[ilo.org-7] Stiglitz, J (2009). "The global crisis, social protection and jobs" (PDF). International Labour Review. Cilt 148. ss. 1-2. doi:10.1111/j.1564-913x.2009.00046.x.

[The_New_Growth_Evidence-8] Temple, J (1999). "The New Growth Evidence" (PDF). Journal of Economic Literature. 37 (1). ss. 112-56. doi:10.1257/jel.37.1.112. 18 Ekim 2015 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 4 Haziran 2016.

[www-wds.worldbank.org-9] Clarke, G (1995). "More evidence on income distribution and growth" (PDF). Journal of Development Economics. Cilt 47. ss. 403-27. doi:10.1016/0304-3878(94)00069-o.

[Freeman2012-10] Freeman, Richard B. (1 Nisan 2012). "Optimal inequality for economic growth, stability, and shared prosperity: the economics behind the Wall Street Occupiers Protest?". Insights. Cilt 11. ss. 5-11. Erişim tarihi: 30 Ocak 2016.

[Friedman2008-11] Friedman, Mark (1 Mart 2008). "Living Wage and Optimal Inequality in a Sarkarian Framework" (PDF). Review of Social Economy. 66 (1). Taylor & Francis. ss. 93-111. doi:10.1080/00346760701668479. Erişim tarihi: 30 Ocak 2016.

[Edsall2014-12] Edsall, Thomas B. (4 Mart 2014). "Just Right Inequality". The New York Times. Erişim tarihi: 31 Ocak 2016.

[becker-13] Becker, Gary S.; Murphy, Kevin M. (Mayıs 2007). "The Upside of Income Inequality". The America. 1 Ekim 2014 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 8 Ocak 2014.

[14] 19 Ekim 2017 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi. Credit Suisse, Research Institute – Global Wealth Databook 2013

[PR_divided-15] Gurría, Angel (5 Aralık 2011).

[16] James K. Galbraith, Inequality and Instability: A Study of the World Economy Just before the Great Crisis (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).

[17] Stiglitz, Joseph E. (June 4, 2012).

[BergOstryEE-18] Berg, Andrew G.; Ostry, Jonathan D. (2011). "Equality and Efficiency". Finance and Development. 48 (3). International Monetary Fund. 3 Temmuz 2012 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 13 Temmuz 2014.

[BergOstrySD-19] Andrew Berg and Jonathan Ostry. (2011) "Inequality and Unsustainable Growth: Two Sides of the Same Coin" 21 Mayıs 2019 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi. IMF Staff Discussion Note No. SDN/11/08 (International Monetary Fund)