Oil spill

Help after an oil spill
Oil slick from the Montara oil spill in the Timor Sea, September 2009

An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually applied to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.

Oil spills penetrate into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved.[1] Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up.[2]

Oil spills can have disastrous consequences for society; economically, environmentally, and socially. As a result, oil spill accidents have initiated intense media attention and political uproar, bringing many together in a political struggle concerning government response to oil spills and what actions can best prevent them from happening.[3]

Largest oil spills

Main article: List of oil spills

Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have damaged vulnerable ecosystems in Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the Galapagos Islands, France, the Sundarbans, Ogoniland, and many other places. The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz),[4] but volume is a limited barometer of damage or impact. Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill because of the remoteness of the site or the difficulty of an emergency environmental response.

Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. These can kill seabirds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms they coat. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

Largest oil spills
Spill / Tanker Location Date Tonnes of crude oil
(thousands)[lower-alpha 1]
Barrels
(thousands)
US Gallons
(thousands)
References
Kuwaiti oil fires [lower-alpha 2]  Kuwait January 16, 1991 - November 6, 1991 136,000 1,000,000 42,000,000 [5][6]
Kuwaiti oil lakes [lower-alpha 3]  Kuwait January 1991 - November 1991 3,409-6,818 25,000-50,000 1,050,000-2,100,000 [7][8][9]
Lakeview Gusher  United States, Kern County, California March 14, 1910September 1911 1,200 9,000 378,000 [10]
Gulf War oil spill [lower-alpha 4]  Kuwait, Iraq, and the Persian Gulf January 19, 1991 - January 28, 1991 818–1,091 6,000–8,000 252,000–336,000 [8][12][13]
Deepwater Horizon  United States, Gulf of Mexico April 20, 2010July 15, 2010 560-585 4,100-4,900 172,000-180,800 [14][15][16][17][18]
Ixtoc I  Mexico, Gulf of Mexico June 3, 1979March 23, 1980 454–480 3,329–3,520 139,818–147,840 [19][20][21]
Atlantic Empress / Aegean Captain  Trinidad and Tobago July 19, 1979 287 2,105 88,396 [22][23][24]
Fergana Valley  Uzbekistan March 2, 1992 285 2,090 87,780 [25]
Nowruz Field Platform  Iran, Persian Gulf February 4, 1983 260 1,907 80,080 [26]
ABT Summer  Angola, 700 nmi (1,300 km; 810 mi) offshore May 28, 1991 260 1,907 80,080 [22]
Castillo de Bellver Union of South Africa South Africa, Saldanha Bay August 6, 1983 252 1,848 77,616 [22]
Amoco Cadiz  France, Brittany March 16, 1978 223 1,635 68,684 [22][25][25][27][28]
  1. One metric ton (tonne) of crude oil is roughly equal to 308 US gallons or 7.33 barrels approx.; 1 oil barrel (bbl) is equal to 35 imperial or 42 US gallons. Approximate conversion factors.
  2. Estimates for the amount of oil burned in the Kuwaiti oil fires range from 500,000,000 barrels (79,000,000 m3) to nearly 2,000,000,000 barrels (320,000,000 m3). Between 605 and 732 wells were set ablaze, while many others were severely damaged and gushed uncontrolled for several months. It took over ten months to bring all of the wells under control. The fires alone were estimated to consume approximately 6,000,000 barrels (950,000 m3) of oil per day at their peak.
  3. Oil spilled from sabotaged fields in Kuwait during the 1991 Persian Gulf War pooled in approximately 300 oil lakes, estimated by the Kuwaiti Oil Minister to contain approximately 25,000,000 to 50,000,000 barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, this figure does not include the amount of oil absorbed by the ground, forming a layer of "tarcrete" over approximately five percent of the surface of Kuwait, fifty times the area occupied by the oil lakes.[7]
  4. Estimates for the Gulf War oil spill range from 4,000,000 to 11,000,000 barrels (1,700,000 m3). The figure of 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 barrels (1,300,000 m3) is the range adopted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the United Nations in the immediate aftermath of the war, 1991–1993, and is still current, as cited by NOAA and The New York Times in 2010.[11] This amount only includes oil discharged directly into the Persian Gulf by the retreating Iraqi forces from January 19 to 28, 1991. However, according to the U.N. report, oil from other sources not included in the official estimates continued to pour into the Persian Gulf through June, 1991. The amount of this oil was estimated to be at least several hundred thousand barrels, and may have factored into the estimates above 8,000,000 barrels (1,300,000 m3).

Human impact

An oil spill represents an immediate fire hazard. The Kuwaiti oil fires produced air pollution that caused respiratory distress. The Deepwater Horizon explosion killed eleven oil rig workers. The fire resulting from the Lac-Mégantic derailment killed 47 and destroyed half of the town's centre.

Spilled oil can also contaminate drinking water supplies. For example, in 2013 two different oil spills contaminated water supplies for 300,000 in Miri, Malaysia;[29] 80,000 people in Coca, Ecuador,.[30] In 2000, springs were contaminated by an oil spill in Clark County, Kentucky.[31]

Contamination can have an economic impact on tourism and marine resource extraction industries. For example, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill impacted beach tourism and fishing along the Gulf Coast, and the responsible parties were required to compensate economic victims.

Environmental effects

A surf scoter covered in oil as a result of the 2007 San Francisco Bay oil spill
A bird covered in oil from the Black Sea oil spill

In general, sрilled oil can affect animals and plants in twо ways: dirесt from the oil and from the respоnsе or cleаnup process.[32] There is no clear relationship between the amount of oil in the aquatic environment and the likely impact on biodiversity. A smaller spill at the wrong time/wrong season and in a sensitive environment may prove much more harmful than a larger spill at another time of the year in another or even the same environment.[33] Oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water.

Animals who rely on scent to find their babies or mothers cannot due to the strong scent of the oil. This causes a baby to be rejected and abandoned, leaving the babies to starve and eventually die. Oil can impair a bird's ability to fly, preventing it from foraging or escaping from predators. As they preen, birds may ingest the oil coating their feathers, irritating the digestive tract, altering liver function, and causing kidney damage. Together with their diminished foraging capacity, this can rapidly result in dehydration and metabolic imbalance. Some birds exposed to petroleum also experience changes in their hormonal balance, including changes in their luteinizing protein.[34] The majority of birds affected by oil spills die from complications without human intervention.[35][36] Some studies have suggested that less than one percent of oil-soaked birds survive, even after cleaning,[37] although the survival rate can also exceed ninety percent, as in the case of the Treasure oil spill.[38]

Heavily furred marine mammals exposed to oil spills are affected in similar ways. Oil coats the fur of sea otters and seals, reducing its insulating effect, and leading to fluctuations in body temperature and hypothermia. Oil can also blind an animal, leaving it defenseless. The ingestion of oil causes dehydration and impairs the digestive process. Animals can be poisoned, and may die from oil entering the lungs or liver.

There are three kinds of oil-consuming bacteria. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and acid-producing bacteria are anaerobic, while general aerobic bacteria (GAB) are aerobic. These bacteria occur naturally and will act to remove oil from an ecosystem, and their biomass will tend to replace other populations in the food chain.

Sources and rate of occurrence

A VLCC tanker can carry 2 million barrels (320,000 m3) of crude oil. This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez incident. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped 260,000 barrels (41,000 m3) of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed.[39] Considering the volume of oil carried by sea, however, tanker owners' organisations often argue that the industry's safety record is excellent, with only a tiny fraction of a percentage of oil cargoes carried ever being spilled. The International Association of Independent Tanker Owners has observed that "accidental oil spills this decade have been at record low levels—one third of the previous decade and one tenth of the 1970s—at a time when oil transported has more than doubled since the mid 1980s."

Oil tankers are only one source of oil spills. According to the United States Coast Guard, 35.7% of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels (ships/barges), 27.6% from facilities and other non-vessels, 19.9% from non-tank vessels, and 9.3% from pipelines; 7.4% from mystery spills.[40] On the other hand, only 5% of the actual spills came from oil tankers, while 51.8% came from other kinds of vessels.[40]

The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has tracked 9,351 accidental spills that have occurred since 1974.[41] According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil.[22] 91% of the operational oil spills are small, resulting in less than 7 metric tons per spill.[22] On the other hand, spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84% of these involving losses of over 700 metric tons.[22]

Cleanup and recovery

A U.S. Air Force Reserve plane sprays Corexit dispersant over the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.
Clean-up efforts after the Exxon Valdez oil spill.
A US Navy oil spill response team drills with a "Harbour Buster high-speed oil containment system".

Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved.[1]

Methods for cleaning up include:[42]

Oil slicks on Lake Maracaibo
Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the Prestige oil spill
Bags of oily waste from the Exxon Valdez oil spill

Equipment used includes:[48]

Prevention

Spill response procedures should include elements such as;

for spill cleanup (gloves, respirators, etc.) and an explanation of their proper use;

[60]

Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) mapping

Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps are used to identify sensitive shoreline resources prior to an oil spill event in order to set priorities for protection and plan cleanup strategies.[61][62] By planning spill response ahead of time, the impact on the environment can be minimized or prevented. Environmental sensitivity index maps are basically made up of information within the following three categories: shoreline type, and biological and human-use resources.[63]

Shoreline type

Shoreline type is classified by rank depending on how easy the target site would be to clean up, how long the oil would persist, and how sensitive the shoreline is.[64] The floating oil slicks put the shoreline at particular risk when they eventually come ashore, covering the substrate with oil. The differing substrates between shoreline types vary in their response to oiling, and influence the type of cleanup that will be required to effectively decontaminate the shoreline. In 1995, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration extended ESI maps to lakes, rivers, and estuary shoreline types.[63] The exposure the shoreline has to wave energy and tides, substrate type, and slope of the shoreline are also taken into account—in addition to biological productivity and sensitivity. The productivity of the shoreline habitat is also taken into account when determining ESI ranking.[65] Mangroves and marshes tend to have higher ESI rankings due to the potentially long-lasting and damaging effects of both the oil contamination and cleanup actions. Impermeable and exposed surfaces with high wave action are ranked lower due to the reflecting waves keeping oil from coming onshore, and the speed at which natural processes will remove the oil.

Biological resources

Habitats of plants and animals that may be at risk from oil spills are referred to as "elements" and are divided by functional group. Further classification divides each element into species groups with similar life histories and behaviors relative to their vulnerability to oil spills. There are eight element groups: Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish, Invertebrates, Habitats and Plants, Wetlands, and Marine Mammals and Terrestrial Mammals. Element groups are further divided into sub-groups, for example, the ‘marine mammals’ element group is divided into dolphins, manatees, pinnipeds (seals, sea lions & walruses), polar bears, sea otters and whales.[63][65] Problems taken into consideration when ranking biological resources include the observance of a large number of individuals in a small area, whether special life stages occur ashore (nesting or molting), and whether there are species present that are threatened, endangered or rare.[66]

Human-use resources

Human use resources are divided into four major classifications; archaeological importance or cultural resource site, high-use recreational areas or shoreline access points, important protected management areas, or resource origins.[63][66] Some examples include airports, diving sites, popular beach sites, marinas, natural reserves or marine sanctuaries.

Estimating the volume of a spill

By observing the thickness of the film of oil and its appearance on the surface of the water, it is possible to estimate the quantity of oil spilled. If the surface area of the spill is also known, the total volume of the oil can be calculated.[67]

Film thickness Quantity spread
Appearance inches mm nm gal/sq mi L/ha
Barely visible 0.0000015 0.0000380 38 25 0.370
Silvery sheen 0.0000030 0.0000760 76 50 0.730
First trace of color 0.0000060 0.0001500 150 100 1.500
Bright bands of color 0.0000120 0.0003000 300 200 2.900
Colors begin to dull 0.00004 0.0010000 1000 666 9.700
Colors are much darker 0.0000800 0.0020000 2000 1332 19.500

Oil spill model systems are used by industry and government to assist in planning and emergency decision making. Of critical importance for the skill of the oil spill model prediction is the adequate description of the wind and current fields. There is a worldwide oil spill modelling (WOSM) program.[68] Tracking the scope of an oil spill may also involve verifying that hydrocarbons collected during an ongoing spill are derived from the active spill or some other source. This can involve sophisticated analytical chemistry focused on finger printing an oil source based on the complex mixture of substances present. Largely, these will be various hydrocarbons, among the most useful being polyaromatic hydrocarbons. In addition, both oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons, such as parent and alkyl homologues of carbazole, quinoline, and pyridine, are present in many crude oils. As a result, these compounds have great potential to supplement the existing suite of hydrocarbons targets to fine-tune source tracking of petroleum spills. Such analysis can also be used to follow weathering and degradation of crude spills.[69]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oil spill.

References

  1. 1 2 "Lingering Lessons of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill". Commondreams.org. 2004-03-22. Archived from the original on June 13, 2010. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
  2. "Hindsight and Foresight, 20 Years After the Exxon Valdez Spill". NOAA. 2010-03-16. Retrieved 2010-04-30. |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)
  3. Wout Broekema (April 2015). "Crisis-induced learning and issue politicization in the EU". Public Administration. Public Administration. doi:10.1111/padm.12170.
  4. www.scientificamerican.com 20150-04-20 How BP's Blowout Ranks among Top 5 Oil Spills in 1 Graphic
  5. United States Department of Defense Environmental Exposure Report: Oil Well Fires (updated August 2, 2000)
  6. CNN.com, Kuwait still recovering from Gulf War fires, 3 Jan. 2003.
  7. 1 2 United States Geological Survey, Campbell, Robert Wellman, ed. 1999. Iraq and Kuwait: 1972, 1990, 1991, 1997. Earthshots: Satellite Images of Environmental Change. U.S. Geological Survey. http://earthshots.usgs.gov, revised 14 Feb. 1999. Archived February 19, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  8. 1 2 United Nations, Updated Scientific Report on the Environmental Effects of the Conflict between Iraq and Kuwait, 8 Mar. 1993.
  9. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center News, 1991 Kuwait Oil Fires, 21 Mar. 2003.
  10. Harvey, Steve (2010-06-13). "California's legendary oil spill". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2010-07-14.
  11. Gulf Oil Spill Is Bad, but How Bad?, last updated 20 May 2010.
  12. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Report To Congress United States Gulf Environmental Technical Assistance From January 27 - July 31 1991
  13. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Response and Restoration, Emergency Response Division, Incident News: Arabian Gulf Spills, updated 18 May 2010.
  14. Campbell Robertson /Clifford Krauss (2 August 2010). "Gulf Spill Is the Largest of Its Kind, Scientists Say". The New York Times. New York Times. Retrieved 2 August 2010.
  15. CNN (1 July 2010). "Oil disaster by the numbers". CNN. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
  16. Consumer Energy Report (20 June 2010). "Internal Documents: BP Estimates Oil Spill Rate up to 100,000 Barrels Per Day". Consumer Energy Report. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
  17. "Big Oil Plans Rapid Response to Future Spills". Abcnews.go.com. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
  18. Khatchadourian, Raffi (March 14, 2011). "The Gulf War". The New Yorker.
  19. "IXTOC I". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
  20. "Ixtoc 1 oil spill: flaking of surface mousse in the Gulf of Mexico". Nature Publishing Group. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
  21. John S. Patton, Mark W. Rigler, Paul D. Boehm & David L. Fiest (1981-03-19). "Ixtoc 1 oil spill: flaking of surface mousse in the Gulf of Mexico". NPG (Nature Publishing Group). Retrieved 2007-07-29.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Major Oil Spills". International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved 2008-11-02.
  23. "Atlantic Empress". Centre de Documentation de Recherche et d'Expérimentations. Archived from the original on October 19, 2007. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
  24. "Tanker Incidents". Archived from the original on June 23, 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-19.
  25. 1 2 3 "Oil Spill History". The Mariner Group. Retrieved 2008-11-02.
  26. "Oil Spills and Disasters". Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  27. "Amoco Cadiz". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
  28. Archived May 25, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
  29. "Oil spill disrupts water supply - Nation - The Star Online". Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  30. "Ecuador oil spill threatens Brazilian water supply". Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  31. "Kentucky Crude Oil Spill may reach river, contaminate drinking water". Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  32. Bautista H. and Rahman K. M. M. (2016). Review On the Sundarbans Delta Oil Spill: Effects On Wildlife and Habitats. International Research Journal, 1(43), Part 2, pp: 93-96. doi:10.18454/IRJ.2016.43.143
  33. Bautista H. and Rahman K. M. M. (2016). Effects of Crude Oil Pollution in the Tropical Rainforest Biodiversity of Ecuadorian Amazon Region, Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences, 8(2), 249-254
  34. C. Michael Hogan (2008)., "Magellanic Penguin", It can take over 1 year to solve the problem of an oil spill. GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg.
  35. Dunnet, G., Crisp, D., Conan, G., Bourne, W. (1982) "Oil Pollution and Seabird Populations [and Discussion]" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B 297(1087): 413–427
  36. Untold Seabird Mortality due to Marine Oil Pollution, Elements Online Environmental Magazine.
  37. "Expert Recommends Killing Oil-Soaked Birds". Spiegel Online. May 6, 2010. Retrieved August 1, 2011.
  38. AC Wolfaardt, AJ Williams, LG Underhill, RJM Crawford & PA Whittington (2009): Review of the rescue, rehabilitation and restoration of oiled seabirds in South Africa, especially African penguins Spheniscus demersus and Cape gannets Morus capegnsis, 1983–2005, African Journal of Marine Science, 31:1, 31-54
  39. Panetta, L. E. (Chair) (2003). America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change [Electronic Version, CD] Pew Oceans Commission.
  40. 1 2 United States Coast Guard (2007). "Cumulative Spill Data and Graphics". United States Coast Guard. Archived from the original on 2008-10-08. Retrieved 2008-04-10.
  41. International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (2008). "Oil Tanker Spill Information Pack". London: International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
  42. Oil spill cleanup technology Patents and patent applications Archived November 10, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
  43. "The Environmental Literacy Council - Oil Spills". Enviroliteracy.org. 2008-06-25. Retrieved 2010-06-16.
  44. "Biological Agents – Emergency Management – US EPA".
  45. , Kasai, Y et al. "Predominant Growth of Alcanivorax Strains in Oil-contaminated and Nutrient-supplemented Sea Water." Environmental Microbiology 4.3 (2002): 141-47.
  46. "Oil and natural gas eating bacteria to clear-up spills". www.oilandgastechnology.net. April 30, 2014.
  47. "S-200 | NCP Product Schedule | Emergency Management | US EPA". Epa.gov. Retrieved 2010-06-16.
  48. 1 2 "Emergency Response: Responding to Oil Spills". Office of Response and Restoration. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007-06-20.
  49. "Oil Spills". Library.thinkquest.org. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
  50. "Spill Response - Dispersants". International Tanker Operators Pollution Federation Limited. Retrieved 2010-05-03.
  51. "Spill Response - Dispersants Kill Fish Eggs". journal Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. Retrieved 2010-05-21.
  52. Barry Carolyn (2007). "Slick Death: Oil-spill treatment kills coral". Science News. 172: 67.
  53. "Dispersant makes oil 52 times more toxic - Technology & science - Science - LiveScience - NBC News". msnbc.com. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  54. Pezeshki, S. R., Hester, M. W., Lin, Q. & Nyman, J. A. (2000). The effects of oil spill clean-up on dominant US Gulf coast marsh macrophytes: a review. Environmental Pollution. 108: 129-139.
  55. "A slick idea" by Cara Murphy Beach Reporter Manhattan Beach section ll/14/1992
  56. "Zapping Oil Spills with Dry Ice and Ingenuity" by Gordon Dillow Los Angeles Times South Bay section page 1 2/24/1994
  57. If only they'd tried the chilled-soup solution in Alaska" by John Bogert Daily Breeze (Torrance CA) local section page B1 2/17/1994
  58. Fountain, Henry (2010-06-24). "Advances in Oil Spill Cleanup Lag Since Valdez". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-07-05.
  59. "Quebec tragedy unlikely to slow oil shipments via rail". BostonGlobe.com. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
  60. "Oil Spill Response Procedure" (PDF). Chemstore UK. Retrieved 2014-02-25.
  61. "Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) Maps". Retrieved 2010-05-27.
  62. "NOAA's Ocean Service Office of Response and Restoration". Response.restoration.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2010-06-16.
  63. 1 2 3 4 NOAA (2002). Environmental Sensitivity Index Guidelines, version 3.0. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OR&R 11. Seattle: Hazardous Response and Assessment Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 129p.
  64. Gundlach, E.R. and M.O. Hayes (1978). Vulnerability of Coastal Environments to Oil Spill Impacts. Marine Technology Society. 12 (4): 18-27.
  65. 1 2 NOAA (2008). Introduction to Environmental Sensitivity Index maps. NOAA Technical Manual. Seattle: Hazardous Response and Assessment Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 56p.
  66. 1 2 IMO/IPIECA (1994). Sensitivity Mapping for Oil Spill Response. International Maritime Organization/ International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association Report Series, Volume 1. 22p.
  67. Metcalf & Eddy. Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003. 98.
  68. Anderson, E.L., E. Howlett, K. Jayko, V. Kolluru, M. Reed, and M. Spaulding. 1993. The worldwide oil spill model (WOSM): an overview. Pp. 627–646 in Proceedings of the 16th Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program, Technical Seminar. Ottawa, Ontario: Environment Canada.
  69. Wang, Z., M. Fingas, and D.S. Page. 1999. Oil spill identification. Journal of Chromatography A. 843: 369-411. doi:10.1016/S0021-9673(99)00120-X.

Further reading

  • The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2004
  • Oil Spill Case Histories 1967-1991, NOAA/Hazardous Materials and Response Division, Seattle WA, 1992
  • Nelson-Smith, Oil Pollution and Marine Ecology, Elek Scientific, London, 1972; Plenum, New York, 1973
  • Oilspill Data set
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 12/1/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.