Local volatility

A local volatility model, in mathematical finance and financial engineering, is one that treats volatility as a function of both the current asset level $S_{t}$ and of time $t$ . As such, a local volatility model is a generalisation of the Black-Scholes model, where the volatility is a constant (i.e. a trivial function of $S_{t}$ and $t$ ).

Formulation

In mathematical finance, the asset S_t that underlies a financial derivative, is typically assumed to follow a stochastic differential equation of the form

dS_{t}=(r_{t}-d_{t})S_{t}\,dt+\sigma _{t}S_{t}\,dW_{t}

where $r_{t}$ is the instantaneous risk free rate, giving an average local direction to the dynamics, and $W_{t}$ is a Wiener process, representing the inflow of randomness into the dynamics. The amplitude of this randomness is measured by the instant volatility $\sigma _{t}$ . In the simplest model i.e. the Black-Scholes model, $\sigma _{t}$ is assumed to be constant; in reality, the realized volatility of an underlying actually varies with time.

When such volatility has a randomness of its own—often described by a different equation driven by a different W—the model above is called a stochastic volatility model. And when such volatility is merely a function of the current asset level S_t and of time t, we have a local volatility model. The local volatility model is a useful simplification of the stochastic volatility model.

"Local volatility" is thus a term used in quantitative finance to denote the set of diffusion coefficients, $\sigma _{t}=\sigma (S_{t},t)$ , that are consistent with market prices for all options on a given underlying. This model is used to calculate exotic option valuations which are consistent with observed prices of vanilla options.

Development

The concept of a local volatility was developed when Bruno Dupire ^[1] and Emanuel Derman and Iraj Kani^[2] noted that there is a unique diffusion process consistent with the risk neutral densities derived from the market prices of European options.

Derman and Kani described and implemented a local volatility function to model instantaneous volatility. They used this function at each node in a binomial options pricing model. The tree successfully produced option valuations consistent with all market prices across strikes and expirations.^[2] The Derman-Kani model was thus formulated with discrete time and stock-price steps. The key continuous-time equations used in local volatility models were developed by Bruno Dupire in 1994. Dupire's equation states

{\frac {\partial C}{\partial T}}={\frac {1}{2}}\sigma ^{2}(K,T;S_{0})K^{2}{\frac {\partial ^{2}C}{\partial K^{2}}}-(r-d)K{\frac {\partial C}{\partial K}}-dC

There exist few known parametrisation of the volatility surface based on the Heston model (Schönbucher, SVI and gSVI) as well as their de-arbitraging methodologies.^[3]

Derivation

Given the price of the asset $S_{t}$ governed by the risk neutral SDE

dS_{t}=(r-d)S_{t}dt+\sigma (t,S_{t})S_{t}dW_{t}

The transition probability $p(t,S_{t})$ conditional to $S_{0}$ satisfies the forward Kolmogorov equation (also known as Fokker–Planck equation)

p_{t}=-[(r-d)s\,p]_{s}+{\frac {1}{2}}[(\sigma s)^{2}p]_{ss}

Because of the Martingale pricing theorem, the price of a call option with maturity $T$ and strike $K$ is

{\begin{aligned}C&=e^{-rT}\mathbb {E} ^{Q}[(S_{T}-K)^{+}]\\&=e^{-rT}\int _{K}^{\infty }(s-K)\,p\,ds\\&=e^{-rT}\int _{K}^{\infty }s\,p\,ds-K\,e^{-rT}\int _{K}^{\infty }p\,ds\end{aligned}}

Differentiating the price of a call option with respect to $K$

C_{K}=-e^{-rT}\int _{K}^{\infty }pds

and replacing in the formula for the price of a call option and rearranging terms

e^{-rT}\int _{K}^{\infty }s\,p\,ds=C-K\,C_{K}

Differentiating the price of a call option with respect to $K$ twice

C_{KK}=e^{-rT}p

Differentiating the price of a call option with respect to $T$ yields

C_{T}=-r\,C+e^{-rT}\int _{K}^{\infty }(s-K)p_{T}ds

using the Forward Kolmogorov equation

C_{T}=-r\,C-e^{-rT}\int _{K}^{\infty }(s-K)[(r-d)s\,p]_{s}\,ds+{\frac {1}{2}}e^{-rT}\int _{K}^{\infty }(s-K)[(\sigma s)^{2}\,p]_{ss}\,ds

integrating by parts the first integral once and the second integral twice

C_{T}=-r\,C+(r-d)e^{-rT}\int _{K}^{\infty }s\,p\,ds+{\frac {1}{2}}e^{-rT}(\sigma K)^{2}\,p

using the formulas derived differentiating the price of a call option with respect to $K$

{\begin{aligned}C_{T}&=-r\,C+(r-d)(C-K\,C_{K})+{\frac {1}{2}}\sigma ^{2}K^{2}C_{KK}\\&=-(r-d)K\,C_{K}-d\,C+{\frac {1}{2}}\sigma ^{2}K^{2}C_{KK}\end{aligned}}

Use

Local volatility models are useful in any options market in which the underlying's volatility is predominantly a function of the level of the underlying, interest-rate derivatives for example. Time-invariant local volatilities are supposedly inconsistent with the dynamics of the equity index implied volatility surface,^[4]^[5] but see Crepey, S (2004). "Delta-hedging Vega Risk". Quantitative Finance. 4. , who claims that such models provide the best average hedge for equity index options. Local volatility models are nonetheless useful in the formulation of stochastic volatility models.^[6]

Local volatility models have a number of attractive features.^[7] Because the only source of randomness is the stock price, local volatility models are easy to calibrate. Also, they lead to complete markets where hedging can be based only on the underlying asset. The general non-parametric approach by Dupire is however problematic, as one needs to arbitrarily pre-interpolate the input implied volatility surface before applying the method. Alternative parametric approaches have been proposed, notably the highly tractable mixture dynamical local volatility models by Damiano Brigo and Fabio Mercurio.^[8]^[9]

Since in local volatility models the volatility is a deterministic function of the random stock price, local volatility models are not very well used to price cliquet options or forward start options, whose values depend specifically on the random nature of volatility itself.

References

↑ Bruno Dupire (1994). "Pricing with a Smile". Risk. http://www.risk.net/data/risk/pdf/technical/2007/risk20_0707_technical_volatility.pdf
1 2 Derman, E., Iraj Kani (1994). ""Riding on a Smile." RISK, 7(2) Feb.1994, pp. 139-145, pp. 32-39." (PDF). Risk. Retrieved 2007-06-01.
↑ Babak Mahdavi Damghani & Andrew Kos (2013). "De-arbitraging with a weak smile". Wilmott. http://www.readcube.com/articles/10.1002/wilm.10201?locale=en
↑ Mahdavi Damghani, Babak (2013). "De-arbitraging With a Weak Smile: Application to Skew Risk". Wilmott. 2013 (1): 40–49. doi:10.1002/wilm.10201.
↑ Dumas, B., J. Fleming, R. E. Whaley (1998). "Implied volatility functions: Empirical tests". The Journal of Finance. 53.
↑ Gatheral, J. (2006). The Volatility Surface: A Practitioners's Guide. Wiley Finance. ISBN 978-0-471-79251-2.
↑ Derman, E. I Kani & J. Z. Zou (1996). "The Local Volatility Surface: Unlocking the Information in Index Options Prices". Financial Analysts Journal. (July-Aug 1996).
↑ Damiano Brigo & Fabio Mercurio (2001). "Displaced and Mixture Diffusions for Analytically-Tractable Smile Models". Mathematical Finance - Bachelier Congress 2000. Proceedings. Springer Verlag.
↑ Damiano Brigo & Fabio Mercurio (2002). "Lognormal-mixture dynamics and calibration to market volatility smiles" (PDF). International Journal of Theoretical and Applied Finance. 5 (4). Retrieved 2011-03-07.

Carol Alexander (2004). "Normal mixture diffusion with uncertain volatility: Modelling short- and long-term smile effects". Journal of Banking & Finance. 28 (12).

Babak Mahdavi Damghani & Andrew Kos (2013). "De-Arbitraging with a Weak Smile: Application to Skew Risk". Wilmott Magazine. http://ssrn.com/abstract=2428532

Volatility

Modelling volatility	Implied volatility Volatility smile Volatility clustering Local volatility Stochastic volatility Jump-diffusion models ARCH and GARCH

Trading volatility	Volatility arbitrage Straddle Volatility swap IVX VIX

Derivatives market

Derivative (finance)

Options

Terms	Credit spread Debit spread Exercise Expiration Moneyness Open interest Pin risk Risk-free interest rate Strike price the Greeks Volatility

Vanilla options	Bond option Call Employee stock option Fixed income FX Option styles Put Warrants

Exotic options	Asian Barrier Basket Binary Chooser Cliquet Commodore Compound Forward start Interest rate Lookback Mountain range Rainbow Swaption

Combinations	Collar Covered call Fence Iron butterfly Iron condor Straddle Strangle Protective put Risk reversal

Spreads	Back Bear Box Bull Butterfly Calendar Diagonal Intermarket Ratio Vertical

Valuation	Binomial Black Black–Scholes model Finite difference Garman-Kohlhagen Margrabe's formula Put–call parity Simulation Real options valuation Trinomial Vanna–Volga pricing

Swaps

Exotic derivatives

Other derivatives

Market issues

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