Clovis culture

"A Clovis blade with medium to large lanceolate spear-knife points. Side is parallel to convex and exhibit careful pressure flaking along the blade edge. The broadest area is near the midsection or toward the base. The Base is distinctly concave with a characteristic flute or channel flake removed from one or, more commonly, both surfaces of the blade. The lower edges of the blade and base is ground to dull edges for hafting. Clovis points also tend to be thicker than the typically thin later stage  Folsom points. Length: 4–20 cm/1.5–8 in. Width: 2.5–5 cm/1–2
A Clovis projectile point created using bifacial percussion flaking (that is, each face is flaked on both edges alternately with a percussor)

The Clovis culture is a prehistoric Paleo-Indian culture, named for distinct stone tools found in close association with Pleistocene fauna at Blackwater Locality No. 1 near Clovis, New Mexico, in the 1920s and 1930s. The Clovis culture appears around 11,500–11,000 uncal RCYBP[1] (uncalibrated radiocarbon years before present), at the end of the last glacial period, and is characterized by the manufacture of "Clovis points" and distinctive bone and ivory tools. Archaeologists' most precise determinations at present suggest that this radiocarbon age is equal to roughly 13,200 to 12,900 calendar years ago. Clovis people are considered to be the ancestors of most of the indigenous cultures of the Americas.[2][3][4]

The only human burial that has been directly associated with tools from the Clovis culture included the remains of an infant boy named Anzick-1.[5][6] Researchers from the United States and Europe conducted paleogenetic research on Anzick-1's ancient nuclear, mitochondrial, and Y-chromosome DNA.[7] The results of these analyses reveal that Anzick-1 is closely related to modern Native American populations, which lends support to the Beringia hypothesis for the peopling of the Americas.[8]

The Clovis culture was replaced by several more localized regional cultures from the time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period onward, about 12,000 years ago. Post-Clovis cultures include the Folsom tradition, Gainey, Suwannee-Simpson, Plainview-Goshen, Cumberland, and Redstone. Each of these is commonly thought to derive directly from Clovis, in some cases apparently differing only in the length of the fluting on their projectile points. Although this is generally held to be the result of normal cultural change through time,[9] numerous other reasons have been suggested to be the driving force for the observed changes in the archaeological record, such as the Younger Dryas impact event or post-glacial climate change with numerous faunal extinctions.

After the discovery of several Clovis sites in eastern North America in the 1930s, the Clovis people came to be regarded as the first human inhabitants who created a widespread culture in the New World. However, this theory has been challenged, in the opinion of many archaeologists, by several archaeological discoveries, including sites such as Cactus Hill in Virginia, Paisley Caves in the Summer Lake Basin of Oregon, the Topper site in Allendale County, South Carolina, Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania, the Friedkin[10] site in Texas, Cueva Fell in Chile and, especially, Monte Verde, also in Chile.[11] The claim to the oldest human archaeological site known in the Americas belongs to the Pedra Furada human remains and hearths, a site in Brazil that precedes the Clovis culture and the other sites already mentioned by 19,000 to 30,000 years. This discovery has become an issue of contention between North American archaeologists and their South American and European counterparts, who disagree on whether it is conclusively proven to be older.[12][13][14] Adding to this debate are findings from Wally's Beach, an archaeological site discovered in 1996 by an Alberta school teacher, at St. Mary's Reservoir, near Cardston, Alberta, close to the Canadian boundary with the state of Montana. Recent preliminary carbon dating shows a culture from around or prior to 13,000 years ago, along with horse, camel, and other key findings.[15]

Description

Clovis points from the Rummells-Maske Cache Site, Iowa.

A hallmark of the toolkit associated with the Clovis culture is the distinctively shaped, fluted stone spear point, known as the Clovis point. The Clovis point is bifacial and typically fluted on both sides. Archaeologists do not agree on whether the widespread presence of these artifacts indicates the proliferation of a single people, or the adoption of a superior technology by diverse population groups.[16]

The culture was originally named for a small number of artifacts found between 1932 and 1936 at Blackwater Locality No. 1, an archaeological site between the towns of Clovis and Portales, New Mexico. These finds were deemed especially important due to their direct association with mammoth sp. and the extinct Bison antiquus. The in situ finds of 1936 and 1937 included most of four stone Clovis points, two long bone points with impact damage, stone blades, a portion of a Clovis blade core, and several cutting tools made on stone flakes.[16] Clovis sites have since been identified throughout much, but not all, of the contiguous United States, as well as Mexico and Central America, and even into northern South America.[17]

It is generally accepted that Clovis people hunted mammoths, as Clovis points have repeatedly been found in sites containing mammoth remains. However, mammoth was only a small part of the Clovis diet; extinct bison, mastodon, gomphotheres, sloths, tapir, camelops, horse and a host of smaller animals have also been found at Clovis sites where they were killed and eaten. In total, more than 125 species of plants and animals are known to have been used by Clovis people in the portion of the Western Hemisphere they inhabited.[18][19]

The oldest Clovis site in North America is believed to be El Fin del Mundo in northwestern Sonora, Mexico, discovered during a 2007 survey. It features occupation dating around 13,390 calibrated years BP.[20] In 2011, remains of Gomphothere were found; the evidence suggests that humans did in fact kill two of them here. There's also the Aubrey site in Denton County, Texas, which produced a radiocarbon date that is almost identical.[21]

Disappearance of Clovis

Further information: Younger Dryas

The most commonly held perspective on the end of the Clovis culture is that a decline in the availability of megafauna, combined with an overall increase in a less mobile population, led to local differentiation of lithic and cultural traditions across the Americas.[9][22] After this time, Clovis-style fluted points were replaced by other fluted-point traditions (such as the Folsom culture) with an essentially uninterrupted sequence across North and Central America. An effectively continuous cultural adaptation proceeds from the Clovis period through the ensuing Middle and Late Paleoindian periods.[23]

Whether the Clovis culture drove the mammoth, and other species, to extinction via overhunting – the so-called Pleistocene overkill hypothesis – is still an open, and controversial, question.[24] It has also been hypothesized that the Clovis culture saw its decline in the wake of the Younger Dryas cold phase.[25] This 'cold shock', lasting roughly 1500 years, affected many parts of the world, including North America. This appears to have been triggered by a vast amount of meltwater – possibly from Lake Agassiz – emptying into the North Atlantic, disrupting the thermohaline circulation.[26]

The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis or Clovis comet hypothesis originally proposed that a large air burst or earth impact of a comet or comets from outer space initiated the Younger Dryas cold period about 12,900 BP calibrated (10,900 14C uncalibrated) years ago.[27][28][29] The hypothesis has been largely contradicted by research showing that most of the conclusions cannot be repeated by other scientists, and criticized because of misinterpretation of data and the lack of confirmatory evidence.[30][31][32][33]

Discovery

Main articles: Burnet Cave and Dent Site

A cowboy and former slave, George McJunkin, found an Ancient Bison (Bison antiquus, an extinct relative of the American bison) skeleton in 1908 after a flash flood.[34] The site was first excavated in 1926, near Folsom, New Mexico, under the direction of Harold Cook and Jesse Figgins. On August 29, 1927, they found the first in situ Folsom point with the extinct B. antiquus bones. This confirmation of a human presence in the Americas during the Pleistocene inspired many people to start looking for evidence of early man.[35]

In 1929, 19-year-old Ridgely Whiteman, who had been closely following the excavations in nearby Folsom in the newspaper, discovered the Clovis site near the Blackwater Draw in eastern New Mexico. Despite several earlier Paleoindian discoveries, the best documented evidence of the Clovis tool complex was excavated between 1932 and 1937 near Clovis, New Mexico, by a crew under the direction of Edgar Billings Howard and John Cotter from the Academy of Natural Sciences/University of Pennsylvania. Howard's crew left their excavation in Burnet Cave, New Mexico (the first truly professionally excavated Clovis site) in August, 1932, and visited Whiteman and his Blackwater Draw site. By November, Howard was back at Blackwater Draw to investigate additional finds from a construction project.[34]

The American Journal of Archaeology (January–March, 1932 V36 #1) in its "Archaeological Notes" mentions E. B. Howard's work in Burnet Cave, including the discovery of extinct fauna and a "Folsom type" point four feet below a Basketmaker burial. This brief mention of the Clovis point found in place predates any work at the Dent Site in Colorado. Reference is made to a slightly earlier article on Burnet Cave in The University Museum Bulletin of November, 1931.

The first report of professional work at the Blackwater Draw Clovis site is in the November 25, 1932, issue of Science News. The publications on Burnet Cave and Blackwater Draw directly contradict statements by several authors (for example see Haynes 2002:56 The Early Settlement of North America) that Dent, Colorado was the first excavated Clovis site. The Dent Site, in Weld County, Colorado, was simply a fossil mammoth excavation in 1932. The first Dent Clovis point was found November 5, 1932 and the in situ point was found July 7, 1933. The in situ Clovis point from Burnet Cave was excavated in late August, 1931 (and reported early in 1932). E. B. Howard brought the Burnet Cave point to the 3rd Pecos Conference, September 1931, and showed it around to several archaeologists interested in Early Man (see Woodbury 1983).

Also, in 1968, in Montana, a Clovis burial site was found where the remains of a two years old child were studied. These remains have been named as Anzick-1 and recently, in 2014, have been used in scientific research.[7]

Clovis Paleo-Indians

Main article: Anzick-1

Available genetic data shows that the Clovis people are the direct ancestors of roughly 80% of all living Native American populations in North and South America, with the remainder descended from ancestors who entered in later waves of migration.[36][37] As reported in February 2014, DNA from the 12,600-year-old remains of Anzick boy, found in Montana, has affirmed this connection to the peoples of the Americas. In addition, this DNA analysis affirmed genetic connections back to ancestral peoples of northeast Asia. This adds weight to the theory that peoples migrated across a land bridge from Siberia to North America.[4]

Clovis First / Single origin hypothesis

Known as "Clovis First," the predominant hypothesis among archaeologists in the latter half of the 20th century had been that the people associated with the Clovis culture were the first inhabitants of the Americas. The primary support for this was that no solid evidence of pre-Clovis human habitation had been found. According to the standard accepted theory, the Clovis people crossed the Beringia land bridge over the Bering Strait from Siberia to Alaska during the period of lowered sea levels during the ice age, then made their way southward through an ice-free corridor east of the Rocky Mountains in present-day Western Canada as the glaciers retreated.[38]

This hypothesis came to be challenged by studies suggesting a pre-Clovis human occupation of the Americas.[39] In 2011, following the excavation of an occupation site at Buttermilk Creek, Texas, a prominent group of scientists claimed to have definitely established the existence "of an occupation older than Clovis."[40][41]

According to researchers Michael Waters and Thomas Stafford of Texas A&M University, new radiocarbon dates place Clovis remains from the continental United States in a shorter time window beginning 450 years later than the previously accepted threshold (13,200 to 12,900 BP).[2]

The new scientific consensus has been established that Clovis-first hypothesis is incorrect.[42][43][44][45][46][47]

The results of a multiple-author study by Danish, Canadian and American scientists published in Nature in February 2016 revealed that "the first Americans, whether Clovis or earlier groups in unglaciated North America before 12.6 cal. kyr BP", are "unlikely" to "have travelled to North America from Siberia via the Bering land bridge[48] "via a corridor that opened up between the melting ice sheets in what is now Alberta and B.C. about 13,000 years ago" as many anthropologists have argued for decades.[49] The lead author, Mikkel Pedersen - a PhD student from University of Copenhagen - explained, "The ice-free corridor was long considered the principal entry route for the first Americans... Our results reveal that it simply opened up too late for that to have been possible."[49] The scientists argued that by 10,000 years ago, the ice-free corridor in what is now Alberta and B.C "was gradually taken over by a boreal forest dominated by spruce and pine trees" and that "Clovis people likely came from the south, not the north, perhaps following wild animals such as bison."[48][49]

Alternatives to Clovis-first

Evidence of human habitation before Clovis

Further information: § Other sites

Archaeological sites that predate Clovis that are well documented include the following:

Predecessors of the Clovis people may have migrated south along the North American coastlines, although there are arguments for many migrations along several different routes.[71] Radiocarbon dating of the Monte Verde site in Chile place Clovis-like culture there as early as 18,500 to 14,500 years ago.[59] Remains found at the Channel Islands of California place coastal Paleoindians there 12,500 years ago. This suggests that the Paleoindian migration could have spread more quickly along the Pacific coastline, proceeding south, and that populations that settled along that route could have then begun migrations eastward into the continent.

The Pedra Furada sites in Brazil include a collection of rock shelters, which were used for thousands of years by diverse human populations. The first excavations yielded artifacts with C14 dates of 48,000 to 32,000 years BP. Repeated analysis has confirmed this dating, carrying the range of dates up to 60,000 BP.[72] The best-analyzed archaeological levels are dated between 32,160 ± 1000 years BP and 17,000 ± 400 BP.

In 2004, worked stone tools were found at Topper in South Carolina that have been dated by radiocarbon techniques possibly to 50,000 years ago.[73] But, there is significant scholarly dispute regarding these dates.[74] Scholars agree that evidence of humans at the Topper Site date back to 22,900 cal yr BP.[75]

A more substantiated claim is that of Paisley Caves, Oregon, where rigorous carbon-14 and genetic testing appears to indicate that humans related to modern Native Americans were present in the caves over 1000 14C years before the earliest evidence of Clovis.[76] Traces and tools made by another people, the "Western Stemmed" tradition, were documented.[77]

A study published in Science presents strong evidence that humans occupied sites in Monte Verde, Chile, at the tip of South America, as early as 13,000 years ago.[78] If this is true, then humans must have entered North America long before the Clovis Culture – perhaps 16,000 years ago.

The Tlapacoya site in Mexico is located along the base of a volcanic (remnant) hill on the shore of the former Lake Chalco. Seventeen excavations along the base of Tlapacoya Hill between 1956 and 1973 uncovered piles of disarticulated bones of bear and deer that appeared to have been butchered, plus 2,500 flakes and blades presumably from the butchering activities, plus one non-fluted spear point. All were found in the same stratum containing three circular hearths filled with charcoal and ash. Bones of many other animal species were also present, including horses and migratory waterfowl. Two uncalibrated radiocarbon dates on carbon from the hearths came in at approximately 24,000 and 22,000 years ago.[79] At another location a prismatic micro-blade of obsidian was found in association with a tree trunk radiocarbon dated (uncalibrated) at approximately 24,000 years ago. This obsidian blade has recently been hydration dated by Joaquín García-Bárcena to 22,000 years ago. The hydration results were published in a seminal article that deals with the evidence for pre-Clovis habitation of Mexico.[80]

Coastal migration route

Studies of the mitochondrial DNA of First Nations/Native Americans published in 2007 suggest that the people of the New World may have diverged genetically from Siberians as early as 20,000 years ago, far earlier than the standard theory suggests.[39] According to one alternative theory, the Pacific coast of North America may have been free of ice, allowing the first peoples in North America to come down this route prior to the formation of the ice-free corridor in the continental interior.[81] No evidence has yet been found to support this hypothesis except that genetic analysis of coastal marine life indicates diverse fauna persisting in refugia throughout the Pleistocene ice ages along the coasts of Alaska and British Columbia; these refugia include common food sources of coastal aboriginal peoples, suggesting that a migration along the coastline was feasible at the time.[82] Some early sites on the coast, for example Namu, British Columbia, exhibit maritime focus on foods from and early point with substantial cultural continuity.[83]

In February 2014, researchers reported on their DNA analysis of the remains of Anzick boy (referred to as Anzick-1) of Montana, the oldest skeleton found in the Americas and dated to 12,600 years ago. They found the mtDNA to be D4h3a, "one of the rare lineages associated with Native Americans."[7] This was the same as the mtDNA associated with current coastal populations in North and South America. The study team suggest that finding this genetic evidence so far inland shows that "current distribution of genetic markers are not necessarily indicative of the movement or distribution of peoples in the past."[7] The Y haplotype was found to be Q-L54*(xM3). Further testing found that Anzick-1 was most closely related to Native American populations (see below).[7]

Solutrean hypothesis

Main article: Solutrean hypothesis

The controversial Solutrean hypothesis proposed in 1999 by Smithsonian archaeologist Dennis Stanford and colleague Bruce Bradley (Stanford and Bradley 2002), suggests that the Clovis people could have inherited technology from the Solutrean people who lived in southern Europe 21,000–15,000 years ago, and who created the first Stone Age artwork in present-day southern France.[84] The link is suggested by the similarity in technology between the projectile points of the Solutreans and those found at Clovis (and pre-Clovis) sites. Its proponents point to tools found at various pre-Clovis sites in eastern North America (particularly in the Chesapeake Bay region) as progenitors of Clovis-style tools.[85] The model envisions these people making the crossing in small watercraft via the edge of the pack ice in the North Atlantic Ocean that then extended to the Atlantic coast of France, using skills similar to those of the modern Inuit people, making landfall somewhere around the then-exposed Grand Banks of the North American continental shelf.

In a 2008 study of the relevant paleoceanographic data, Kieran Westley and Justin Dix concluded that "it is clear from the paleoceanographic and paleo-environmental data that the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) North Atlantic does not fit the descriptions provided by the proponents of the Solutrean Atlantic Hypothesis. Although ice use and sea mammal hunting may have been important in other contexts, in this instance, the conditions militate against an ice-edge-following, maritime-adapted European population reaching the Americas."[86]

University of New Mexico anthropologist Lawrence G. Straus, a primary critic of the Solutrean hypothesis, points to the theoretical difficulty of the ocean crossing, a lack of Solutrean-specific features in pre-Clovis artifacts, as well as the lack of art (such as that found at Lascaux in France) among the Clovis people, as major deficiencies in the Solutrean hypothesis. The 3,000 to 5,000 radiocarbon year gap between the Solutrean period of France and Spain and the Clovis of the New World also makes such a connection problematic.[87] In response, Bradley and Stanford contend that it was "a very specific subset of the Solutrean who formed the parent group that adapted to a maritime environment and eventually made it across the north Atlantic ice-front to colonize the east coast of the Americas" and that this group may not have shared all Solutrean cultural traits.[88]

Genetic evidence of east/west dichotomy

Mitochondrial DNA analysis in 2014 has found that members of some native North American tribes have a maternal ancestry (called haplogroup X) linked to the maternal ancestors of some present-day individuals in western Asia and Europe, albeit distantly. This has also provided some support for pre-Clovis models. More specifically, a variant of mitochondrial DNA called X2a found in many Native Americans has been traced to western Eurasia, while not being found in eastern Eurasia.[89]

Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Anzick-1 concluded that the boy belonged to what is known as haplogroup or lineage D4h3a. This finding is important because the D4h3a line is considered to be a lineage "founder", belonging to the first people to reach the Americas. Although rare in most of today's Native Americans in the US and Canada, D4h3a genes are more common among native peoples of South America, far from the site in Montana where Anzick-1 was buried. This suggests a greater genetic complexity among Native Americans than previously thought, including an early divergence in the genetic lineage 13,000 years ago. One theory suggests that after crossing into North America from Siberia, a group of the first Americans, with the lineage D4h3a, moved south along the Pacific coast and, over thousands of years, into Central and South America, while others may have moved inland, east of the Rocky Mountains.[7] The apparent early divergence between North American and Central plus South American populations may or may not be associated with post-divergence gene flow from a more basal population into North America; however, analysis of published DNA sequences for 19 Siberian populations does not favor the latter scenario.[7]

Spearheads and DNA found at the Paisley Caves site in Oregon suggest that North America was colonized by more than one culture, and that the Clovis culture was not the first. There is evidence to suggest an east/west dichotomy, with the Clovis culture located to the east.[90]

But in 2014, the autosomal DNA of a 12,500+-year-old infant from Montana was sequenced.[7][8][91][92] The DNA was taken from a skeleton referred to as Anzick-1, found in close association with several Clovis artifacts. Comparisons showed strong affinities with DNA from Siberian sites, and virtually ruled out any close affinity with European sources (the "Solutrean hypothesis"). The DNA also showed strong affinities with all existing Native American populations, which indicated that all of them derive from an ancient population that lived in or near Siberia, the Upper Palaeolithic Mal'ta population. Mal'ta belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup R and mitochrondrial macrohaplogroup U.[7][93]

The data indicate that Anzick-1 is from a population directly ancestral to present South American and Central American Native American populations. This rules out hypotheses which posit that invasions subsequent to the Clovis culture overwhelmed or assimilated previous migrants into the Americas. Anzick-1 is less closely related to present North American Native American populations (including a Yaqui genetic sample), suggesting that the North American populations are basal to Anzick-1 and Central and South American populations.[7] The apparent early divergence between North American and Central plus South American populations may or may not be associated with post-divergence gene flow from a more basal population into North America; however, analysis of published DNA sequences for 19 Siberian populations did not favor the latter scenario.[7] The boy Anzick-1, which is 12,6 thousand years old on the territory of Montana, belonged to Y-haplogroup Q-L54(xM3).[7] Q-L54 is by far the largest haplogroup among Native Americans.

Other sites

Mammuthus primigenius "Hebior Mammoth specimen" bearing tool/butcher marks, cast skeleton produced and distributed by Triebold Paleontology Incorporated

In approximate reverse chronological order:

See also

References

  1. "Clovis Culture" entry in the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology: "9,500–9,000 BC".
  2. 1 2 Waters, Michael; et al. (2007). "Redefining the Age of Clovis: Implications for the Peopling of the Americas". Science (315): 1122–1126. doi:10.1126/Science.1127166.
  3. David R. Starbuck, The Archeology of New Hampshire: Exploring 10,000 Years in the Granite State, UPNE, 2006, p. 25.
  4. 1 2 Sharon Bigley, "Ancient native boy's genome reignites debate over first Americans", Reuters, 12 February 2014
  5. Owsley, Douglas W; Hunt, David (May 2001). "Clovis and early Archaic crania from the Anzick site (24PA506), Park County, Montana". Plains Anthropologist.
  6. New Rdiocarbon Dates for the Anzick Clovis Burial by Juliet E. Morrow and Stuart J.Fiedel. In Paleoindian Archaeology, edited by J.E.Morrow and C.G.Gnecco. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Rasmussen, M.; Anzick, S. L.; Waters, M. R.; Skoglund, P.; DeGiorgio, M.; Stafford, T. W.; Rasmussen, S.; Moltke, I.; Albrechtsen, A.; Doyle, S. M.; Poznik, G. D.; Gudmundsdottir, V.; Yadav, R.; Malaspinas, A. S.; White, S. S.; Allentoft, M. E.; Cornejo, O. E.; Tambets, K.; Eriksson, A.; Heintzman, P. D.; Karmin, M.; Korneliussen, T. S.; Meltzer, D. J.; Pierre, T. L.; Stenderup, J.; Saag, L.; Warmuth, V. M.; Lopes, M. C.; Malhi, R. S.; Brunak, S. R.; Sicheritz-Ponten, T.; Barnes, I.; Collins, M.; Orlando, L.; Balloux, F.; Manica, A.; Gupta, R.; Metspalu, M.; Bustamante, C. D.; Jakobsson, M.; Nielsen, R.; Willerslev, E. (2014-02-13). "The genome of a Late Pleistocene human from a Clovis burial site in western Montana". Nature. 506 (7487): 225–229. Bibcode:2014Natur.506..225R. doi:10.1038/nature13025. PMID 24522598.
  8. 1 2 Raff, J. A.; Bolnick, D. A. (2014-02-13). "Palaeogenomics: Genetic roots of the first Americans". Nature. 506 (7487): 162–163. Bibcode:2014Natur.506..162R. doi:10.1038/506162a.
  9. 1 2 Haynes, Gary (2002). The Early Settlement of North America: The Clovis Era. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 52. ISBN 0-521-52463-6.
  10. 1 2 3 Waters, Michael R.; Forman, Steven L.; Jennings, Thomas A.; Nordt, Lee C.; Driese, Steven G.; Feinberg, Joshua M.; Keene, Joshua L.; Halligan, Jessi; Lindquist, Anna; Pierson, James; Hallmark, Charles T.; Collins, Michael B.; Wiederhold, James E. (2011). "The Buttermilk Creek Complex and the Origins of Clovis at the Debra L. Friedkin Site, Texas" (PDF). Science. 331 (25): 1599–1603. Bibcode:2011Sci...331.1599W. doi:10.1126/science.1201855. PMID 21436451. Retrieved 2011-03-24.
  11. "Monte Verde Under Fire". Archaeology.org. 1999-10-18. Retrieved 2011-02-06.
  12. "Pedra Furada, Brazil: Paleoindians, Paintings, and Paradoxes: An interview with Drs. Niède Guidon, Anne-Marie Pessis, Fabio Parenti, Claude Guérin, Evelyne Peyre, and Guaciara M. dos Santos". Athenapub.com. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  13. ""Brazilian Findings Spark Archeological Debate" by Alex Bellos". Cabrillo.edu. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  14. ""Stones of Contention" by David Meltzer". Space.newscientist.com. 1995-06-24. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  15. http://www.msn.com/en-ca/travel/news/alberta-camel-hunting-site-points-to-mysterious-prehistoric-people/ar-AAa3AVj?ocid=iehp
  16. 1 2 Mann, Charles C. (November 2013). "The Clovis Point and the Discovery of America's First Culture". Smithsonian.com. The Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  17. Pearson, Georges; Ream, Joshua (2005). "Clovis on the Caribbean Coast of Venezuela". Current Research in the Pleistocene. 22: 28–31. ISSN 8755-898X.
  18. Haynes, G. (2009). "Estimates of Clovis-Era Megafaunal Populations and Their Extinction Risks". American Megafaunal Extinctions at the End of the Pleistocene. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer Science + Business Media B.V. pp. 39–53.
  19. Surovell, T. A.; Waguespack, N. M. (2008-11-15). "How many elephant kills are 14?: Clovis mammoth and mastodon kills in context". Quaternary International. 191 (1): 82–97. Bibcode:2008QuInt.191...82S. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.12.001.
  20. Sanchez, G.; Holliday, V. T.; Gaines, E. P.; Arroyo-Cabrales, J.; Martínez-Tagüeñ, N.; Kowler, A.; Lange, T.; Hodgins, G. W. L.; Mentzer, S. M.; Sanchez-Morales, I. (2014-07-14). "Human (Clovis)–gomphothere (Cuvieronius sp.) association ∼13,390 calibrated yBP in Sonora, Mexico". PNAS. 111: 10972–10977. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11110972S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1404546111. PMC 4121807Freely accessible. PMID 25024193.
  21. Ferring, C. Reid (2001) The Archaeology and Paleoecology of the Aubrey Clovis Site (41DN479) Denton County, Texas. Center for Environmental Archaeology, Department of Geography, University of North Texas, Denton
  22. "Southeastern Prehistory: Paleoindian Period". National Park Service. Archived from the original on 2008-05-08. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
  23. Lepper, Bradley T. (1999). "Pleistocene Peoples of Midcontinental North America". In Bonnichsen, Robson; Turnmire, Karen. Ice Age People of North America. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press. pp. 362–394.
  24. Barnosky, A. D.; et al. (1 October 2004). "Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents". Science. 306: 70–5. Bibcode:2004Sci...306...70B. doi:10.1126/science.1101476. PMID 15459379. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  25. Anderson, D. G.; et al. (December 2009). "Human Population Decline in North America during the Younger Dryas". American Geophysical Union. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  26. Teller, James T. (16 November 2012). "Importance of freshwater injections into the Arctic Ocean in triggering the Younger Dryas cooling" (PDF). PNAS. 109: 19880–1. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10919880T. doi:10.1073/pnas.1218344109. PMC 3523840Freely accessible. PMID 23161906. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  27. Firestone, Richard; West, Allen; Warwick-Smith, Simon (4 June 2006). The Cycle of Cosmic Catastrophes: How a Stone-Age Comet Changed the Course of World Culture. Bear & Company. p. 392. ISBN 1-59143-061-5.
  28. Firestone, R. B.; West, A.; Kennett, J. P.; et al. (October 2007). "Evidence for an extraterrestrial impact 12,900 years ago that contributed to the megafaunal extinctions and the Younger Dryas cooling". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (41): 16016–21. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10416016F. doi:10.1073/pnas.0706977104. PMC 1994902Freely accessible. PMID 17901202.
  29. Bunch, T. E.; Hermes, R. E.; Moore, A. M. T.; et al. (June 2012). "Very high-temperature impact melt products as evidence for cosmic airbursts and impacts 12,900 years ago". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 109 (28): E1903–12. Bibcode:2012PNAS..109E1903B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1204453109. PMC 3396500Freely accessible. PMID 22711809.
  30. Kerr, R. A. (3 September 2010). "Mammoth-Killer Impact Flunks Out". Science. 329 (5996): 1140–1. Bibcode:2010Sci...329.1140K. doi:10.1126/science.329.5996.1140. PMID 20813931.
  31. Pinter, Nicholas; Scott, Andrew C.; Daulton, Tyrone L.; Podoll, Andrew; Koeberl, Christian; Anderson, R. Scott; Ishman, Scott E. (2011). "The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis: A requiem". Earth-Science Reviews. 106 (3–4): 247–264. Bibcode:2011ESRv..106..247P. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.02.005.
  32. Pigati, J. S.; Latorre, C; Rech, J. A.; Betancourt, J. L.; Martínez, K. E.; Budahn, J. R. (April 2012). "Accumulation of impact markers in desert wetlands and implications for the Younger Dryas impact hypothesis". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 109 (19): 7208–12. Bibcode:2012PNAS..109.7208P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1200296109. PMC 3358914Freely accessible. PMID 22529347.
  33. Boslough, M.; Nicoll, K.; Holliday, V.; Daulton, T. L.; Meltzer, D.; Pinter, N.; Scott, A. C.; Surovell, T.; Claeys, P.; Gill, J.; Paquay, F.; Marlon, J.; Bartlein, P.; Whitlock, C.; Grayson, D.; Jull, A. J. T. (2012). "Arguments and Evidence Against a Younger Dryas Impact Event". Geophysical Monograph Series. 198: 13–26. doi:10.1029/2012gm001209.
  34. 1 2 Mann, Charles C. (2005). "1491: new revelations of the Americas before Columbus".
  35. "America's Stone Age Explorers". Nova. PBS TV. 2004. Retrieved 2006-06-01.
  36. Harris, Richard (13 February 2014). "Ancient DNA Ties Native Americans from Two Continents to Clovis".
  37. "America's only Clovis skeleton had its genome mapped". University of Copenhagen. 12 February 2014.
  38. Flannery, T. (2001). The Eternal Frontier: an ecological history of North America and its peoples. New York: Grove Press. pp. 173–185. ISBN 0-8021-3888-8.
  39. 1 2 Fagundes, Nelson J.R.; et al. (2008). "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 82: 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013. PMC 2427228Freely accessible. PMID 18313026.
  40. Waters, Michael R.; Forman, Steven L.; Jennings, Thomas A.; Nordt, Lee C.; Driese, Steven G.; Feinberg, Joshua M.; Keene, Joshua L.; Halligan, Jessi; Lindquist, Anna; Pierson, James; Hallmark, Charles T.; Collins, Michael B.; Wiederhold, James E. (2011-03-25). "The Buttermilk Creek Complex and the Origins of Clovis at the Debra L. Friedkin Site, Texas". Science. 331 (6024): 1599–1603. Bibcode:2011Sci...331.1599W. doi:10.1126/science.1201855. PMID 21436451. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  41. Wilford, John (2011-03-24). "Arrowheads Found in Texas Dial Back Arrival of Humans in America". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  42. Waters, Michael; Stafford, Tom (2014-08-18). "The First Americans: A Review of the Evidence for the Late-Pleistocene Peopling of the Americas" (PDF). Paleoamerican Odyssey. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-62349-192-5. Retrieved 2015-11-21.
  43. "CHILEAN SITE VERIFIED AS EARLIEST HABITATION OF AMERICAS; FINDINGS SHOW MONTE VERDE DATES BACK 12,500 YEARS" (Press release). Retrieved 2015-07-11.
  44. SWAMINATHAN, NIKHIL. "Destination: The Americas" (Press release). Retrieved 2015-07-11.
  45. Anderson, Beau. "Influence of the Clovis-First Hypothesis on the Debate Regarding the Historicity of the Book of Mormon". Retrieved 2015-07-11.
  46. Oppenheimer, Stephen. "CLOVIS FIRST: SHAKING THE ORTHODOXY". Retrieved 2015-07-11.
  47. Yuri, Leveratto. "The origin of the American man: the mystery of Monte Verde (Chile), and the end of the Clovis consensus". Retrieved 2015-07-11.
  48. 1 2 Postglacial viability and colonization in North America's ice-free corridor. Nature (Report). August 10, 2016. doi:10.1038/nature19085. Retrieved August 10, 2016. Mikkel W. Pedersen, Anthony Ruter, Charles Schweger, Harvey Friebe, Richard A. Staff, Kristian K. Kjeldsen, Marie L. Z. Mendoza, Alwynne B. Beaudoin, Cynthia Zutter, Nicolaj K. Larsen, Ben A. Potter, Rasmus Nielsen, Rebecca A. Rainville, Ludovic Orlando, David J. Meltzer, Kurt H. Kjær, Eske Willerslev
  49. 1 2 3 Chung, Emily (August 10, 2016). "Popular theory on how humans populated North America can't be right, study shows: Ice-free corridor through Alberta, B.C. not usable by humans until after Clovis people arrived". CBC News. Retrieved August 10, 2016.
  50. "Pedra Furada". Journey To A New Land. SFU Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. 2005. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  51. "The Rock Art of Pedra Furada". Bradshaw Foundation. 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  52. Goodyear, Albert C. (1 January 2005). "Evidence of Pre-Clovis Sites in the Eastern United States". Scholar Commons. University of South Carolina. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
  53. "Scientist: Man in Americas earlier than thought – CNN". Articles.cnn.com. 2004-11-18. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  54. "New Evidence Puts Man In North America 50,000 Years Ago". Sciencedaily.com. 2004-11-18. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  55. "Homepage – Rockshelter Artifacts". Heinz History Center. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  56. "First Americans arrived 2500 years before we thought – life – 24 March 2011". New Scientist. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  57. Hanna, Bill (2010-08-28). "Texas artifacts 'strongest evidence yet' that humans arrived in North America earlier than thought". Star-telegram.com. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  58. "Athena Review 2,3: Recent Finds in Archaeology: Pre-Clovis occupation on Virginia's Nottoway River". Athenapub.com. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  59. 1 2 Dillehay, Tom D.; Ocampo, Carlos (November 18, 2015). "New Archaeological Evidence for an Early Human Presence at Monte Verde, Chile". PLOS ONE. 10: e0141923. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141923.
  60. 1 2 3 Madsen 157
  61. "Cavernas do Peruaçu Federal Environmental Protection Area (APA) / Veredas Do Peruaçu State Park – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Whc.unesco.org. 1998-09-16. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  62. Madsen 152
  63. "Taima Taima". Bradshawfoundation.com. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  64. "Northern Great Basin Prehistory Project, Archaeological and Geoarchaeological Field School, University of Oregon, Summer Sessions". Pages.uoregon.edu. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  65. Dunbar, James S. (2006). "Paleoindian Archaeology". In S. David Webb. First Floridians and last mastodons: the Page-Ladson site in the Aucilla River. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. pp. 403–435 [414]. ISBN 978-1-4020-4325-3.
  66. "Early hunter-gatherers in the Americas: perspectives from central Brazil – page 3 | Antiquity". Findarticles.com. 1998. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  67. "Researchers, Led by Archaeologist, Find Pre-Clovis Human DNA". Newswise.com. 2008-02-04. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  68. Tanana River Valley Archaeology circa 14,000 to 9000 B.P.. Charles E. Holmes. Arctic Anthropology. Vol. 38, No. 2, Between Two Worlds: Late Pleistocene Cultural and Technological Diversity in Eastern Beringia (2001), pp. 154–170
  69. Late Pleistocene Settlement in the Nenana Valley, Central Alaska William R. Powers and John F. Hoffecker. American Antiquity Vol. 54, No. 2 (Apr., 1989), pp. 263–287
  70. "53. Relatives in South America". Andaman.org. Archived from the original on March 30, 2013. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  71. Peter N. Jones, pnj@bauuinstitute.com Bauu Institute, info@bauuinstitute.com (2007-10-19). "Multiple Colonizations and Many Routes in the Peopling of the Americas". Bauuinstitute.com. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  72. Guidon, Niède. (1986) Las Unidades Culturales de Sao Raimundo Nonato – Sudeste del Estado de Piaui-Brasil; New Evidence for the Pleistocene Peopling of the Americas: 157–171. Edited by Alan Bryan. Center for the Study of Early Man. University of Maine. Orono.
  73. "New Evidence Puts Man In North America 50,000 Years Ago", ScienceDaily website
  74. Scientist: :Man in Americas earlier than thought", CNN, 17 November 2004
  75. Madsen 153
  76. Maugh, Thomas H. (July 12, 2012). "Who Was First? New Info on North America's First Inhabitants". LA Times. Retrieved August 24, 2012.
  77. Viegas, Jennifer (July 12, 2012). "'First' Americans were not alone". Discovery. Retrieved July 13, 2012.
  78. Science, May 9, 2008, "Ancient Algae Suggest Sea Route for First Americans"
  79. José Luis Lorenzo and Lorena Mirambell (coordinadores). "Tlapacoya: 35,000 años de historia del Lago de Chalco," Colección Científica núm 155, serie prehistória, Instituto Nacional de Antropología, México, 1986
  80. Joaquín García-Bárcena. "Primeros pobladores: La Etapa Lítica en México," Arqueología Mexicana, Vol. IX, núm. 52, pp. 28–29, 2001.
  81. Meltzer, David J. First Peoples in a New World, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009, p. 129
  82. Jacobs; et al. (2004). "GENES, DIVERSITY, AND GEOLOGIC PROCESS ON THE PACIFIC COAST". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 32: 601–652. Bibcode:2004AREPS..32..601J. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.32.092203.122436.
  83. Carlson, Roy L. and Luke Dalla Bona, ed.s Early Human Occupation in British Columbia. Vancouver. UBC Press. 1996. ISBN 0-7748-0536-6
  84. Bradley, Bruce; Dennis Stanford (2004). "The North Atlantic ice-edge corridor: a possible Palaeolithic route to the New World" (PDF). World Archaeology. 36 (4): 459–478. doi:10.1080/0043824042000303656.
  85. Stanford, Dennis; Lowery, Darrin; Jodry, Margaret; Bradley, Bruce A.; Kay, Marvin; Stafford, Thomas W.; Speakman, Robert J. "New Evidence for a Possible Paleolithic Occupation of the Eastern North American Continental Shelf at the Last Glacial Maximum". Prehistoric Archaeology on the Continental Shelf. 2014: 73–93. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9635-9_5.
  86. Westley, Kieran; Dix, Justin (2008). "The Solutrean Atlantic Hypothesis: A View from the Ocean". Journal of the North Atlantic. 1: 85–98. doi:10.3721/J080527.
  87. Straus, Lawrence G. (April 2000). "Solutrean Settlement of North America? A Review of Reality". American Antiquity. Society for American Archaeology. 65 (2): 219–226. doi:10.2307/2694056. ISSN 0002-7316. JSTOR 2694056.
  88. Bradley, Bruce; Stanford, Dennis "The Solutrean-Clovis connection : reply to Straus, Meltzer and Goebel" World Archaeology 38:44, 704–714, Taylor & Francis, 2006
  89. "Ancient native boy's genome reignites debate over first Americans", Reuters
  90. Kazi Stastna (July 12, 2012). "Clovis people not 1st to arrive in North America". CBC.
  91. Callaway, E. (2014-02-12). "Ancient genome stirs ethics debate". Nature. 506 (7487): 142–143. Bibcode:2014Natur.506..142C. doi:10.1038/506142a.
  92. Watson, T. (2014-02-13). "New theories shine light on origins of Native Americans". USA Today web site. Retrieved 2014-02-15.
  93. "Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans", Nature
  94. A revised chronology of the lowest occupation layer of Pedra Furada Rock Shelter, Piauí, Brazil: the Pleistocene peopling of the Americas G. M. Santos, M. I. Birdb, F. Parenti et al.
  95. "Monte Verde Archaeological Site". Tentative List of Properties of Outstanding Universal Value. World Heritage - United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 1 November 2010.
  96. 1 2 "Monte Verde Excavations To Resume." Archaeology Magazine. Web. 08 Dec. 2011. <http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/verde.html>.
  97. Walter A. Neves and Mark Hubbe: Cranial morphology of early Americans from Lagoa Santa, Brazil: Implications for the settlement of the New World. Laboratorio de Estudos Evolutivos Humanos, Departamento de Genetica e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociencias, Universidade de São Paulo.
  98. C. Michael Hogan, Cueva del Milodon, Megalithic Portal, 13 April 2008
  99. Calvin J. Heusser (2003) Ice Age Southern Andes: A Chronicle of Paleoecological Events, Elsevier, 240 pages ISBN 0-444-51478-3
  100. An El Jobo Mastodon Kill at Taima-taima, Venezuela Science 16 June 1978. Vol. 200 no. 4347 pp. 1275–1277 doi:10.1126/science.200.4347.1275. ALAN L. BRYAN, RODOLFO M. CASAMIQUELA, JosÉ M. CRUXENT, RUTH GRUHN and CLAUDIO OCHSENIUS
  101. Webb et al. 2006 First Floridians and Last Mastodons, Springer
  102. Schafer from the website of the "Friends of the Ice Age" in Kenosha County, Wisconsin
  103. Ancient Stone "Tools" Found; May Be Among Americas' Oldest from the National Geographic website
  104. The Walker Hill Site (21CA668): Comments on the Possibility of a Late Glacial Human Presence in Minnesota from the Minnesota Office of the State Archaeologist website
  105. Michael Balter. "DNA from Fossil Feces breaks Clovis Barrier". Sciencemag.org. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
  106. New Scientist 12/4/08 pg 15
  107. Mud Lake Site from the website of the "Friends of the Ice Age" in Kenosha County, Wisconsin
  108. "The Greatest Journey", James Shreeve, National Geographic, March 2006, pg. 64
  109. Pre-Clovis Occupation on the Nottoway River in Virginia Pre-Clovis Occupation on the Nottoway River in Virginia from the website of the Athena Review, Vol.2, no.3
  110. Lee, Mike (December 27, 1999). "Work on 1987 discovery on hold". Tri-City Herald. Kennewick, Washington. OCLC 17157840.

Further reading

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Clovis culture.
This article is issued from Wikipedia - version of the 11/26/2016. The text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share Alike but additional terms may apply for the media files.